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8 January 2025

New Evidence for the Contemporary Presence of Juvenile White Sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in the Adriatic Sea

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and
1
Department of Palaeontology, University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
2
The MECO Project, 546 45 Thessaloniki, Greece
3
Independent Researcher, 21000 Split, Croatia
4
Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, 21000 Split, Croatia
Fishes2025, 10(1), 25;https://doi.org/10.3390/fishes10010025
This article belongs to the Section Biology and Ecology
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Abstract

The presence of the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) in the Mediterranean Sea is well documented, but mainly through historical and opportunistic records. Historically, the Adriatic Sea, particularly its eastern coastline, was considered a hotspot for white sharks, with relatively frequent reports of juvenile specimens suggesting a potential nursery area. However, since the second half of the 20th century, the abundance of white sharks in the Adriatic has experienced a dramatic decline, with the last confirmed sighting recorded in 2011. In this study, we report the recent capture of a young-of-the-year (YOY) white shark off the Croatian coast, previously misidentified as a porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus). In addition, we revisit historical records of white sharks in the Adriatic Sea to assess whether this region can be considered a nursery area. Our findings highlight significant gaps in the understanding of white shark spatial ecology and reproductive biology in the Mediterranean Sea. Furthermore, this study emphasizes the critical role citizen science and public engagement can play in documenting occurrences of these elusive and endangered predators, offering valuable insights for future conservation efforts.
Keywords:
Chondrichthyes; Mediterranean Sea; nursery area; citizen science; social media; threatened species
Key Contribution:
This study documents the capture of a juvenile white shark off the Croatian coast, representing the first verifiable record of a young-of-the-year white shark in the Adriatic Sea. It also explores the potential role of the Adriatic Sea as a nursery area for this species.

1. Introduction

The white shark, Carcharodon carcharias (L., 1758), is a large, cosmopolitan apex predator that can reach a total length of up to 6 m [1,2]. This species is known to occupy a wide range of different habitats, from shallow coastal waters to continental shelves and remote islands, with long periods spent in pelagic habitats during mid-ocean migrations [3,4,5]. Despite being highly migratory and known for their offshore and transoceanic migration patterns [6,7], there are several populations within three main lineages of white sharks that exhibit little to no genetic exchange (Ref. [8] and references therein).
The Mediterranean population of white sharks is probably the most threatened among these populations and is classified as critically endangered (CR) by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [9]. Mediterranean white sharks show a complex trajectory of population change, marked by an initial historical increase, followed by a sharp decline of 61% since the second half of the 20th century alongside regional declines of 52–96% and a significant contraction in spatial distribution [10]. Although attempts have been made to study the Mediterranean population in the field [11,12,13], these have remained unsuccessful, likely due to the low population density and lack of (known) aggregation sites. Consequently, most of our knowledge of the biology and ecology as well as the population status of Mediterranean white sharks relies exclusively on opportunistic records and meta-analyses that compiled these records [10,14,15,16,17,18].
The Adriatic Sea, an elongated basin located in the Central Mediterranean Sea between the Italian peninsula and the Balkans, has historically been regarded as a hotspot for white sharks [18], particularly along the Eastern Adriatic coast [19,20]. Due to the relatively high occurrence of juvenile white sharks, the region was also considered a potential historical nursery area for the species [18]. However, over the past three generations (~69 years), the abundance of white sharks in the Adriatic Sea has declined dramatically by an estimated 84% [15]. Today, sightings are rare, with the last confirmed record occurring in 2011 when a juvenile white shark of approximately 220 cm total length (TL) was caught off the coast of Bar, Montenegro [18].
In this study, we present data on a recent capture of a young-of-the-year (YOY) white shark off the coast of Croatia, which was previously misidentified as a porbeagle shark, Lamna nasus [20]. Photographic evidence is provided to clearly demonstrate key morphological features that confirm our species identification. Furthermore, we review previous records of white sharks in the Adriatic Sea and discuss whether this region can indeed be considered a historical or current nursery area for white sharks.

2. Materials and Methods

The record reported here was collected through the citizen science initiative “The MECO Project” [21]. This initiative uses a verified citizen science model, where citizen-submitted observations are verified by scientists with taxonomic expertise (see Gardiner et al. [22]). Subsequently, interviews are conducted to confirm the reported data and to obtain further information. The MECO project datasheet includes the following data categories: date, time, location, report type (e.g., fishing, scuba diving, snorkeling, etc.), media (e.g., social media, direct message, newspaper), sex, ontogenetic stage, condition (dead or alive), total length (TL), depth, temperature, coordinates, reporter, and remarks.
In addition, an extensive literature search was conducted to compile an updated list of records of white sharks in the Adriatic Sea using Google Scholar and the Zoological Record (Appendix A; Table S1). Several published and recited sightings, which are based on oral communications alone and are not accompanied by further evidence, are not included in Appendix A as they could not be validated (see Supplementary Materials Table S2). All new records had to be accompanied by photographic evidence to confirm species identification. Species identification was based on the following features: (1) a heavy, long-snouted, spindle-shaped body; (2) a blunt, conical snout; (3) strong keels on the caudal peduncle; (4) the absence of a secondary caudal keel; (5) a large first dorsal fin, very small second dorsal and anal fins; (6) a lunate caudal fin; (7) large, flat, triangular, serrated teeth; (8) long gill slits; (9) small black eyes; (10) a sharp color change from greyish dorsally to white ventrally; and (11) pectoral fins with black tips on the ventral side [5,23,24]. When applicable, the ontogenetic stages were identified based on the total length following Boldrocchi et al. [18]: young-of-the-year (YOY; TL ≤ 1.75 m), juvenile (TL 1.75–3.0 m), subadult (♂TL 3.0–3.6 m; ♀TL 3.0–4.5 m), and adult (♂TL > 3.6 m; ♀TL > 4.5 m).

3. Results and Discussion

On 12 September 2023, a white shark was caught approximately 4 NM southwest of the island of Svilan near Rogoznica (N 43°29′29.037204 E 15°44′25.207208). It was caught between 16:00 and 19:00 with a bottom-set long line at a depth of 100–120 m. The specimen was approximately 1.20–1.30 m in total length and weighed ca. 20 kg, identifying it as a YOY white shark. This is also consistent with the shape of the first dorsal fin, which had a rounded apex, a feature typically observed in embryonic and neonate white sharks up to 1.6–1.7 m [25].
A recent review of white shark occurrence in the eastern Adriatic Sea [20] mentioned this record, but identified it as a porbeagle shark, Lamna nasus. An interview with the fisherman who caught the shark clarified that the date and location reported in newspapers and in Soldo and Bakiu [20] were slightly inaccurate, with the incident actually occurring two days earlier than previously stated. The presence of a conical snout, serrated teeth, and the lack of lateral cusplets, along with distinctive black markings on the ventral side of the pectoral fin and the absence of a secondary caudal keel as well as the lack of a distinctive white free rear tip on the first dorsal fin (Figure 1) unambiguously demonstrate that this shark was indeed a YOY white shark and not a porbeagle shark, which is also known to occur in this area [26,27,28].
Figure 1. The young-of-the-year (YOY) white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) caught off Rogoznica, Croatia, on 12. September 2023. (A) The ventral side, showcasing the black tips of the pectoral fins; (B) a lateral view showing the rounded apex of the first dorsal fin, which lacks white markings at the rear edge; and (C) a close-up of the head and (D) jaws, showing triangular teeth with serrations and no cusplets. Figure 1 was reproduced from https://www.morski.hr/kod-rogoznice-ulovljena-velika-bijela-psina-ribari-je-prodali-iako-je-zasticena-vrsta/#google_vignette, with permission from the publisher, 2024 (accessed on 2 August 2024).
Soldo and Bakiu [20] further discuss that this would have been the first record of a juvenile white shark in the Adriatic Sea, which is inconsistent with previously reported records included in their list. In fact, 13 YOY and juvenile white sharks have been reported in the Adriatic Sea since 1868, accounting for approximately 15.5% of all records of white sharks with a known ontogenetic stage (seven YOY, six juveniles, six subadults, 14 subadult/adults, 49 adults, and 14 of an unknown ontogenetic stage; Appendix A). However, the majority of these records are based on historical accounts for which there is no physical or photographic evidence. Only three other records of older juvenile white sharks in the Adriatic Sea (nos. 54, 88, 89; Table S1) are supported by photographic documentation. Therefore, the specimen reported here represents the only unambiguous record of a YOY in the Adriatic Sea.
The white shark caught in Rogoznica is the first record of a white shark in the Adriatic Sea since 2011. The presence of white sharks in the Adriatic Sea, especially along the eastern part of the basin, has previously been associated with the historically high abundance of Atlantic bluefin tuna Thunnus thynnus in this area, which are suggested to be the primary prey for white sharks in the Mediterranean Sea [19]. White sharks are generalist top predators that feed on teleosts [29,30], cephalopods [29,31], elasmobranchs [29,32], and mammals [29,33,34]. However, their nutritional niche breadth increases during ontogeny, with only adult white sharks preying on higher-trophic species, while juveniles primarily feed on lower-trophic teleosts and elasmobranchs [29,30,32]. Therefore, the availability of tuna might explain the presence of adult white sharks, which have been frequently observed in close proximity to tuna fisheries [35,36,37,38,39], but does not account for the occurrence of juvenile white sharks in these waters.
An examination of the collected data reveals that juveniles exhibit a distinct distribution pattern compared to subadult and adult individuals. While adult (and possibly large subadult) white sharks have been recorded throughout the Adriatic Sea, juveniles appear to be restricted to the eastern coast, suggesting specific ecological or environmental factors influencing their distribution (Figure 2; Appendix A). The presence of numerous offshore islands in close proximity to the coast along the eastern Adriatic Sea likely provides a suitable habitat for juvenile white sharks, as has been suggested for other Mediterranean regions [40]. Notably, there is no specific hotspot along the eastern coast where juveniles are more frequently recorded. Instead, sightings are distributed along the entire coastline. This observed pattern cannot be attributed to differences in sampling effort between the eastern and western coasts, as Italy, located on the western Adriatic coast, operates the largest fishing fleet in the region [41].
Figure 2. The spatial distribution of white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) sightings in the Adriatic Sea. Colors indicate the relative age of each record: white, 19th century; grey, 20th century; and black, 21st century. Country abbreviations follow ISO 3166-1 standards.
Previous reports from the western Adriatic coast have suggested the presence of juvenile white sharks also in this area [16,42]. Most of these records date back to the period 1872–1905 when the Imperial Maritime Austrian government issued three circulars offering monetary rewards for captured white sharks [16]. In order to claim the reward, captured specimens had to be presented to the Natural History Museum in Trieste for identification. Unfortunately, white sharks were not the only species that were mentioned in these circulars, and payment records preserved in the State Archive of Trieste do not specify the species for which they were issued [16]. Therefore, the identification of these specimens is uncertain, and we were unable to verify these records (Table S2). A more recent record from Termoli (Italy) mentions the capture of 4–5 female juvenile white sharks, but this record is based on informal communication and lacks supporting evidence [14,16,18]. Consequently, all confirmed records of juvenile white sharks in the Adriatic Sea come from the eastern coast.
The Adriatic Sea has previously been suggested as a potential nursery area for white sharks due to the relatively high occurrence of juvenile specimens in this region [18]. Based on its size and caudal fin morphology, the specimen reported here was identified as a YOY, suggesting that parturition may occur in the Adriatic Sea. This is further supported by a historical record of a gravid female caught near Rijeka [20]. Similarly, several other areas in the Mediterranean Sea have been proposed as potential nursery areas for white sharks, i.e., the Sicilian Channel, Italy [14]; the Gulf of Gabes, Tunisia [14,43,44]; and Edremit Bay, Turkey [45], based on increased juvenile occurrences. However, no discrete nursery areas have been definitively identified in the Mediterranean Sea yet [25]. Furthermore, while white sharks are known to exhibit philopatry [46,47,48], there is evidence that pregnant females are not restricted to a single nursery area but may use widely separated pupping areas [49], and that parturition likely occurs over broader horizontal and vertical spatial scales [7,25]. This was also suggested by previous reports of YOY and juvenile white sharks along the Libyan coast, which were outside their presumed nursery area in the Gulf of Gabes, indicating a wider distribution of these early ontogenetic stages than was previously thought [50]. This indicates that the Mediterranean white shark population exhibits a more complex spatial ecology than previously thought. While the Adriatic Sea remains a plausible candidate for a nursery area, more data on white shark occurrences and broader studies on their spatial ecology in the Mediterranean Sea are needed to confirm this hypothesis.
The record of this YOY white shark in the Adriatic Sea highlights the knowledge gaps that still exist regarding the distribution, spatial ecology, and reproductive biology of Mediterranean white sharks. Citizen science can help to address this data deficiency by providing opportunities to collect new observations that would otherwise go undocumented and should be considered as a complementary approach to studying the biology of these elusive animals in the Mediterranean Sea.
In addition, citizen science also has great potential to promote conservation by raising public awareness of the presence of this species in the Adriatic Sea. The white shark is protected under several international agreements, including the Convention of Migratory Species (Appendix I and II) and the Bern Convention. In addition, white sharks are protected via regional binding decisions (e.g., UNEP MAP SPA/BD Protocol, Decision IG.26/4) and are listed as a prohibited species for EU member states in all waters (Regulation (EU) 2019/1241). Mediterranean countries are required to provide high protection against fishing, ensuring white sharks are released unharmed whenever possible. The retention, transshipment, landing, sale, or display of white sharks is strictly prohibited (GFCM 2018, 2021). Unfortunately, despite these regulations, white sharks and other protected species often go unreported and are illegally sold [51], as was the case with the juvenile white shark from Rogoznica, which was sold to a local restaurant. By leveraging social media and citizen science, we are not only able to collect crucial data about the Mediterranean white shark population, but also educate fishermen and the public, as well as decision makers and control authorities, about the ecological importance of this species, thereby raising awareness and encouraging conservation efforts for this iconic but critically endangered predator in the Mediterranean Sea.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/fishes10010025/s1, Table S1: Verified records of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) from the Adriatic Sea; Table S2: Published but unverified records of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) from the Adriatic Sea. References [14,16,18,19,20,26,35,37,42,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70] are cited in the Supplementary Material.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, P.L.J. and P.U.; methodology, P.L.J., P.U., M.P., I.Ć. and J.T.; validation, P.L.J., P.U., M.P., I.Ć., S.N., J.K. and J.T.; investigation, P.L.J., P.U., M.P., I.Ć. and J.T.; data curation, P.L.J., P.U., I.Ć. and J.T.; writing—original draft preparation, P.L.J.; writing—review and editing, P.L.J., P.U., M.P., I.Ć., S.N., J.K. and J.T.; visualization, P.L.J. and J.T.; supervision, P.L.J.; funding acquisition, J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) [P 33820]. For the purpose of open access, the corresponding author has applied a CC BY public copyright license to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data used by the authors for the analysis are available in the Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

We sincerely thank the fisherman (who wishes to remain anonymous) for generously sharing detailed information about this white shark record from Rogoznica. We are thankful to three anonymous reviewers for their constructive feedback on an earlier version of this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

Appendix A

Verified records of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) from the Adriatic Sea, compiled from the literature and the MECO project. Detailed information and sources for each record are provided in Table S1. Unverified or doubtful records that were previously published are listed separately in Table S2.
CountryLocationDateSize [cm]Weight [kg]SexOntogenetic Stage
AlbaniaQeparo-Borsh, Himare15 April 1964445>550Fsubadult
CroatiaJablanac14 September 1868----
Sv. Juraj16 December 1868460--adult
Rijeka16 April 1872490--adult
Opuzen12 May 187295--YOY
Mljet12 May 1872237--juvenile
Rijeka8 June 1872131--YOY
Dugi Otok16 June 1872146--YOY
Cavtat25 July 1872260--juvenile
Rab8 August 1872130--YOY
Ustrine-Cres5 May 1877460--adult
Sveta Martin-Cres8 May 1877413--subadult/adult
Osor-Cres17 June 1878371--subadult/adult
Poreč9 August 1878----
Osor21 May 1879382--subadult/adult
Split23 July 1879402–445--subadult/adult
Ustrine-Cres21 October 1879530--adult
Gradac5 October 1879250--juvenile
Rab22 April 1881380--subadult/adult
Rab16 October 1881405--subadult/adult
Sveta Martin-Cres13 April 1882529--adult
Vrboska-Krk13 June 1883300--subadult
Rab26 September 1883396--subadult/adult
Korčula3 March 1886560--adult
Krk2 September 1887470--adult
Sv. JurajJuly 1888470--adult
Sušak23 October 18885003500femaleadult
Senj26 August 1890440--subadult/adult
Bakarac15 September 1890384--subadult/adult
Pag26 April 1891----
BakaracSeptember 1892450---
Zlarin19 February 1893165-maleYOY
Bakar29 August 1894470-femaleadult
Dubrovnik15 July 1901520--adult
Senj21 May 19036001200 adult
Povile30 September 1903450--adult
Bakarac29 June 1906522-femaleadult
KraljevicaOctober 1909550--adult
Dugi Otok-Kornati2 February 19205251300-adult
UgljanMarch 1926500700-adult
LumbardaAugust 1926400500-subadult/adult
KraljevicaSummer 19266001000-adult
LumbardaOctober 19266001800-adult
Rogoznica1931150-femaleYOY
Susak Island21 August 1934----
Kraljevica2 September 19347751100-adult
Mošćenička Draga7 September 19346001000-adult
Lukovo20 July 19356002500-adult
BakaracSummer 1946----
Primošten August 1950700–800--adult
Pag2 October 19545501500-adult
Senj-Sveti Juraj10 December 1955460-femaleadult
Opatija24 September 1961----
Rava1968200--juvenile
Opatija1971----
Kornati17 August 1972600--adult
Luka Šipanska26 July 1973----
Lokva Rogoznica10 August 1974500--adult
Vrsi near Nin 17 June 1976450-maleadult
Island of Jabuka24 March 20035702000–2500femaleadult
Vis6 October 2008~450--subadult/adult
Rogoznica12 September 2023120–13020-YOY
ItalyAdriatic16 September 1823490-Fadult
Adriatic1827 Spring----
Civitanova MarcheFebruary 1839580–6001800Fadult
Trieste1 September 1868----
Grado19 April 1872300--subadult
Gulf of VeneziaBefore 1881490 adult
Santa Croce di Trieste14 September 1885400--subadult/adult
Trieste1902375-maleadult
TriesteJune 1908-1400-adult
Pescaraca. 1945600--adult
Riccione7 July 1961450- subadult/adult
Golfo di Venezia7 June 1978500--adult
CaorleJune 1978----
NumanaMay 1988450--subadult/adult
Porto Barricata9 October 1988550--adult
PesaroSeptember 1989500+--adult
Brindisi15 September 1996400–500--adult
Senigallia27 August 1998500–6001200-adult
Giulianova26 September 1999600--adult
GiulianovaSeptember–October 1999700--adult
Falconara30 July 2001550–600--adult
Porto San Giorgio9 September 2002700–800 adult
MontenegroHerceg NoviJune 1926300--subadult
BudvaAugust 1955----
Budva31 January 199818580-juvenile
Bar5 August 2011220150malejuvenile
SloveniaIzola22 October 1963490–5501100-adult
North Adriatic Sea Before 1873460 adult
Central Adriatic Sea 1969----
Eastern Adriatic Sea 1901500--adult
Eastern Adriatic Sea May 1947300300-subadult
Adriatic Sea Before 1919438 femalesubadult
Adriatic Sea Before 1969600 adult

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