Urban Transformations for Universal Accessibility: Socio-Educational Dialogue

Abstract

This paper offers a systematic review of the papers in the present century that have addressed the intersection between urbanism, universal accessibility, and the socio-educational sphere. The paper explores, describes, and interprets the published literature found in academic sources included in Scopus and Web of Science (WOS) from the year 2000 to the present about the intersection of these three topics. We start from the dialogue between the social and the educational spheres as a basic premise. Thus, the main objectives of this review are (1) to identify how many articles explicitly address the social dimension in relation to education and universal accessibility; (2) to determine if there is an upward or downward trend in socio-educational perspectives, inclusion, and new urbanism; and (3) to find out if the research provides frameworks for universal accessibility, urban planning, and socio-educational inclusion from this holistic perspective. After removing all exclusion criteria, the study was restricted to 29 papers. The small number of research found is noteworthy. We understand that this shortage is due to the inclusion of the social dimension as a required area. Although there seems to have been a slight increase in recent years, the sample found does not allow us to determine whether or not there is a greater interest in studying the social sphere in relation to inclusive education. We do conclude, however, that this gap highlights the need to make the socio-educational dimension more present.

1. Introduction

The aim of this study is to review the literature that in the present century addresses universal accessibility from a socio-educational perspective. Emphasis is placed on the conjunction of social and pedagogical interactions in educational inclusion and universal accessibility, rejecting the extensive literature that does not explicitly focus on this encounter. The starting point is to understand the educational space as a complex social environment, whose urban transformations in terms of accessibility depend on multidimensional barriers [1,2,3]. This implies considering aspects related to architectural space, but also to social and pedagogical dialogue as a common and interactive environment, which includes different sources of individual and social diversity.

Although this encounter is fundamental for dealing with the object of study from an integral perspective, there are few works that consider accessibility and urbanism in educational environments from the complexity of the society in a clear way. Thus, compared to the considerable literature that in the present century contains topics such as architectural accessibility [4,5,6], urban mobility [7,8,9], universal design [10,11,12,13], educational inclusion [14,15,16,17], universal design for learning (UDL) [18,19,20,21], or the abundant works on inclusive campuses in recent decades [22,23,24,25], the dialogue between the social and the educational spheres in relation to accessibility, urban planning, and its transformations considerably reduces the results. It is for this reason that not only the educational but also the social dimension has been included as a basic descriptor. We understand that the novelty of this review lies in this specificity.

The meeting between society and education is supported by multiple perspectives and authors, among which we can point out the seminal visions of Dewey [26], Durkheim [27], Vigotsky [28], or the foundational authors of Social Pedagogy such as Natorp [29,30] or Mollenhauer [31]. Nor can we forget the socio-critical current of pedagogy, with exponents such as Freire [32] and his emancipatory vocation.

On the other hand, urban transformations are a crucial factor in the promotion of universal accessibility and health in a broad and integral sense, i.e., taking into account physical, mental, emotional, sensorial, cognitive, social, and historical aspects [33]. As for the term accessibility, it does not have a consensus covering the different domains even within the ISO standardization community, being defined as a concept of quality that is interpreted differently depending on the design approach used [34]. This notion of quality underlies urban regeneration projects, as they contemplate the improvement of city structures, as well as their livability and the increase in resources and quality of life for the entire population.

The idea of improving people’s quality of life through urban transformation is associated with the urban reform movement of the 19th century, as a response to the rapid growth of industrial cities. This growth brought with it problems of unhealthy and precarious conditions, especially for the working classes and vulnerable groups. In this sense, Robert Owen and Charles Fourier argued that improvements in the environment favored human development. These authors introduced the socio-educational perspective in urbanism, so that the models of communities they promoted presented an interest in social and educational reform [35]. In the second half of the 20th century, postmodernist urbanism advocated the idea of recovering community through the design of cities. Jane Jacobs [36] and, years later, the new urbanism movement, advocated for land use diversity, pedestrianization, and citizen participation to reclaim public spaces and encourage social interaction between groups.

These currents, which propose including multiple voices in the urban design and planning process, have a clear historical influence on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The goal of new urbanism (NU) is to create compact, socially diverse, pedestrian-oriented communities by altering the built environment in order to lessen sprawl and enhance societal well-being [37]. The adoption of the New Urban Agenda demonstrates the spread of these new urbanism concepts included in the Charter of the New Urbanism, under a different name, and supports claims that new urbanism is gaining popularity in solving contemporary urban challenges [38]. Thus, we can see them reflected in Goal 11: “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” and Goal 4: “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (UN) [39]. On the other hand, lifelong education (for all) is one of the main objectives of Unesco’s Education 2030 Agenda. Together with other urban planning agendas, new cognitive, pedagogical, institutional, and architectural impulses are required to create a lifestyle and climate that are unique to this end [40]. Ensuring access to accessible educational public spaces and educational basic services are some of the most relevant goals. They are in line with universal design (UD) and, therefore, with its educational extension to universal design for learning (UDL), developed in 1984 by the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST) [41]. SDGs, UD, and the UDL seek to remove barriers and ensure equitable participation and access for all people, regardless of their abilities or backgrounds. Inclusivity in cities aligns with inclusivity in learning, as both promote environments that consider and adapt to the diversity of people’s needs and abilities. Ensuring high-quality education is crucial for sustainable development, as it improves quality of life and provides the tools needed to find innovative solutions. Investments can finance educational scholarships, teacher training, construction of educational buildings, and access to services in schools [42].

Soyupak argues that the degree of inclusion found in learning environments is indicative of the egalitarian nature of an educational framework. Applying universal design principles to the construction of learning environments promotes equality in education by offering the maximum degree of inclusion [43]. According to Kapsalis [44], universal design and adaptive architecture are two approaches that can decisively improve the physical accessibility of public spaces and, therefore, the quality of life of users with reduced mobility in cities.

Universal accessibility in its different dimensions is related to the inclusive model and the social paradigm, insofar as it implies the co-responsibility of the community as a generator of enabling and inclusive environments. This implies the removal of barriers and the increase in facilitators of participation and learning (in the terminology of Booth and Ainscow [45], this concerns both educational institutions and the immediate environment).

Along the same lines, the concept of universal accessibility has its justification in equal opportunities, a notion that encompasses non-discrimination. In the European Union and the OECD, there is an increasing proliferation of regulations and policies aimed at promoting universal accessibility, creating environments where all people can live autonomously and independently [33]. This involves removing barriers that limit full participation in urban life, regardless of people’s physical, sensory, or cognitive abilities. The principles guiding the policies are reflected by the European Union in the Communication of the Commission on Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities [46], which ratified the principles established by the UN in the Standard Rules, and the new Communication Strategy on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2021–2030 of the European Commission [47].

This comprehensive approach goes beyond conventional architectural and urban design to encompass socio-cultural and educational aspects that are fundamental in the creation of inclusive environments. Despite this interest, some studies show that pilot projects in cities fail to achieve their initial promised objectives, at least from an inclusion perspective [48].

Park [49] shows that social inclusion in cities increases with greater spatial inclusion, a term that refers to the existence of available space and mobility for disadvantaged people and the physical proximity of different social groups. On the other hand, Adenekan et al. [50] make a study of the evolution of smart cities, pointing out the need for inclusion, among other priorities. According to the authors, this should always be on the roadmap of city planners. This idea is shared by Colding et al. [51], who stress the need for institutions that ensure greater citizen education and participation in order to guarantee the development of sustainable and inclusive cities. Collaboration between educational institutions and urban planners is essential for the development of inclusive cities and sustainability. Heinrich and Million [52] present so-called “socio-spatial educational” landscapes, which involve different disciplines, such as architecture, educational policy, urban design, and urban planning. This cooperation not only improves the physical infrastructure, but also strengthens the educational capacities of the community to effectively address accessibility challenges. As an example of physical necessity for social inclusion, the study presented by Eisenberg et al. [53] demonstrates how situations of social exclusion occur due to the pedestrian networks deployed; for this purpose, they analyze the important factors that determine this inclusion or exclusion, based on interviews in the United States with municipal managers. Along these lines, it is important to determine the true social dimension of urban accessibility. Citizen participation is fundamental in this sense, as well as social equity and educational outreach in urban planning itself. As an example, Kenyon [54] shows how urban mobility planning can increase or reduce the exclusion of a certain population in a city.

As presented in Manfredi [55], the main objective is to assess the evolution of research in this field throughout the 21st century, identify trends in academic and professional interest in universal accessibility, and explore how the principles of universal design are integrated with socio-educational perspectives. All this is performed with the intention of better understanding the socio-spatial encounter that marks the inclusive and universal accessibility trends in educational spaces, in its social and pedagogical dimensions.

That said, it seems interesting to explore the role that research assigns to social factors in the field of universal accessibility and educational inclusion. Specifically, we explore the extent to which it is central to its interests, as a response to trends in new urbanism and socio-educational dialogue. Therefore, the objectives of this review can be summarized as follows: (1) to identify how many articles explicitly address the social dimension in relation to education and universal accessibility; (2) to determine if there is an upward or downward trend in the socio-educational perspective and new urbanism; and (3) to find out if the research provides frameworks for universal accessibility, urban planning, and socio-educational inclusion from this holistic perspective.

2. Materials and Methods

In this research, a systematic review of the literature available in the Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus databases was carried out.

2.1. Search Strategy

The search terms used were organized into four blocks: 1. Urban (descriptors used: urban, acces*, barrier, architectural barrier, facilitator, enable* and universal acces*). 2. Disability in general (descriptors used: disabil*, functional diversity, impairment). 3. Educative inclusion (descriptors used: educat*, school, university, campus, student). 4. Social and educational area (descriptors used: educat* and social*). The search period was from 2000 to 2024.

The search was conducted in August 2024. The combination of general keywords used to conduct the search was the same for the databases: urban AND (acces* OR barrier OR “architectural barrier” OR facilitator* OR enable* OR “universal acces*” OR mobility) AND (disabil* OR “functional diversity” OR impairment) AND inclus* AND (educat* OR school OR university OR campus OR student) AND social OR socialeducat*. In this search, we obtained a total of 116 articles in WOS (n = 116) and 78 in Scopus (n = 78).

2.2. Selection Process

The exclusion criteria were the following: (1) duplicate articles; (2) papers in languages other than English and Spanish; (3) works that do not strictly align with the research objectives (i.e., articles that address topics different from the subject of study); (4) types of studies such as dissertations, doctoral theses, projects, research notes, editorials, and opinion pieces.

First of all, three independent reviewers examined the studies by title and abstract, based on the previous eligibility criteria. In this first review, 6 duplicate articles were removed and 2 articles published in a language other than English and Spanish were eliminated. The remaining studies (n = 186) were evaluated in full text by the same independent reviewers. A total of 157 did not meet one or more inclusion criteria (134 did not address the chosen topic and the remaining 23 did not fit the study type criterion). Finally, the number of articles included in the study was 29 (Figure 1 shows the flow diagram followed for the selection of articles).

2.3. Data Collection Process

The information extracted from the selected articles included the following:

• Characteristics of the study: author, year, and document type.
• Context: (a) universal and urban accessibility, (b) any type of disability, and (c) social and educational area.

This methodological process (Figure 1) was carried out in accordance with the recommendations made by the Prisma standards (Appendix B and Appendix C).

Table A1. Search results.

Authors	Title	Year	Purp	Methodology Procedures	Findings/Results	Conclusions
Demir-Mishchenko, E.	Towards inclusive campus environments: evidence-based research of a university campus	2013	To investigate the environmental issues and needs of students with disabilities on a university campus in Turkey to create an inclusive environment.	Qualitative/Case Study The inclusion of the spaces was evaluated objectively, by means of a checklist, and subjectively, with workshops and participatory meetings.	It identifies the needs of disabled users in the university environment, reports on the implementation and development of a holistic plan to create an inclusive university environment, outlines architectural and urban planning needs, and reports on future studies.	Understanding the challenges faced by university students with disabilities is essential in order to take appropriate measures to address them. The participatory workshops, such as design workshops, are crucial for training students and for helping them understand their issues.
Graham, B. C., Keys, C. B., McMahon, S. D., & Brubacher, M. R.	Transportation Challenges for Urban Students with Disabilities: Parent Perspectives	2014	To explore transportation difficulties experienced by students with disabilities attending urban schools from the perspective of their parents, mainly focusing on low-income, African American, and Latino families.	Qualitative The researchers conducted 14 content analysis meetings with 5 to 12 parents each, focusing on transportation themes including aides, exclusion from school programs, scheduling issues, equipment problems, and safety concerns.	Five major themes emerged from the parent discussions, highlighting critical transport barriers that affected the students’ social and emotional experiences in schools.	The findings stress the need for better school policies integrating transportation solutions within inclusion models to improve education for students with disabilities.
Sorani-Villanueva, Sandra; McMahon, Susan D; Crouch, Ronald; Keys, Christopher B	School problems and solutions for students with disabilities: a qualitative examination	2014	To learn about the problems of students with disabilities after a transition from a school that primarily served students with disabilities to more inclusive schools.	Qualitative. Teacher surveys of individual students. Data from 75 participating teachers and staff members who completed surveys on 126 pupils who transitioned to mainstream education are examined.	Problems in various areas were effectively solved through cooperation between key figures and the implementation of student initiatives.	Implications include improvements in inclusive theory, research, and practices, focusing on curricula, resources, services, and architectural accommodations for students with disabilities.
Kuhl, S., Pagliano, P., & Boon, H.	In the Too Hard Basket: Issues Faced by Rural Australian Teachers When Students with Disabilities are Included in Their Secondary Classes	2015	To examine the experiences of rural Australian teachers in including students with disabilities in their secondary school classrooms.	Qualitative The study employed qualitative research through interviews with 20 teachers, exploring their challenges and perceptions regarding inclusion in rural settings.	Teachers supported the idea of inclusion but reported challenges such as lack of support, high staff turnover, and limited access to professional development. This is amplified by the rural context.	The study highlights the need for a multidimensional approach to address the unique barriers faced by rural teachers, promoting support systems tailored to rural education.
Khalid, Md. S; Pedersen, M. J. L	Digital exclusion in higher education contexts: A systematic literature review	2016	To clarify underlying factors of “digital exclusion” and “digital divide” in higher education.	Systematic literature review	Identified factors are grouped into social exclusion, digital exclusion, and accessibility, with significant overlap and variation across contexts.	Understanding digital exclusion is enhanced by categorizing factors, but addressing and overcoming these issues remains complex due to their context-specific nature.
Westbrook, J., Croft, A., & Miles, S.	Inclusions and Exclusions in Rural Tanzanian Primary Schools: Material Barriers, Teacher Agency, and Disability Equality	2018	To explore the barriers and facilitators to disability inclusion in rural Tanzanian primary schools from a teacher’s perspective.	Qualitative The study involved in-depth interviews with teachers from 15 rural, urban, and coastal schools in Tanzania. Videoed lesson observations were also analyzed.	Teachers’ practices were inconsistent in promoting disability equality, with material, structural, and attitudinal barriers preventing full inclusion. However, teachers’ agency showed potential in overcoming these challenges	Disability inclusion requires addressing both material barriers and shifting the focus of disability from a social construct to a rights-based one. The experience of teachers could inform inclusion policies.
Johnson, K. W.	Perceptions of General Education Teachers in Grades 6–8 on the Inclusion of Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders in the General Education Setting in an Urban School District in Massachusetts	2019	To explore how general education teachers perceive and manage the inclusion of students with autism in their classrooms.	Qualitative Phenomenological research study examining the perceptions of general education teachers on including students with autism in middle school settings.	Teachers often feel unprepared and lack resources to address the complex needs of students with autism, relying on personal judgment due to the absence of a standardized inclusion model.	There is a need for better preparation and resources for teachers to effectively include students with autism in general education settings.
Ravenscroft, J., Davis, J., Bilgin, M. & Wazni, K.	Factors that influence elementary school teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion of visually impaired children in Turkey	2019	To explore factors influencing elementary school teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of visually impaired children in mainstream schools.	Quantitative. Analyzed data from two questionnaires completed by 253 elementary school teachers in Turkey, from both rural and urban areas.	Teachers generally held positive attitudes towards inclusion, influenced positively by their initial and in-service training. However, a significant barrier was teachers feeling unprepared to teach visually impaired children.	Increased post-qualification training is needed to better prepare teachers for the inclusion of visually impaired children.
Ross, T. & Buliung, R.	Access work: Experiences of parking at school for families living with childhood disability	2019	To study how families living with childhood disability experience everyday school travel throughout the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area in Ontario, Canada.	Qualitative. Ethnographic interviews with 13 families (parent-child dyads) living with childhood disability. Because two families had two parents participate and two other families had two disabled children participate, the participant totals were 15 disabled children and 15 parents.	The families sometimes encounter technically accessible, but functionally inaccessible school site parking options. Further, the families are frequently required and relied on by schools to perform various types of access work (physical, temporal, and social) to compensate for school site inaccessibility.	Using a critical ableist studies (CAS) perspective, it is possible to deliberately engage with families’ experiences and views to improve accessible school parking, reduce the amount of work imposed on families who have children with disabilities, and move toward fairer access to education. Talking with and learning from families can help school developers understand the diverse day-to-day experiences of families. More user-friendly designs can result.
Linares-García, J., Hernández-Quirama, A. & Rojas-Betancur, H. M.	Afrontamiento espacial de estudiantes con discapacidad física	2019	To know the forms of daily territorial appropriation of students with physical and visual disabilities in the city of Bucaramanga, Colombia.	Qualitative approach, where ethnographic techniques, interviews, and cartographic analysis are combined with the participation of six students of a public university.	It shows the deficiencies of the transportation system, the problems of occupation of public space, the barriers that reflect the lack of state control, and the exclusionary and violent cultural actions faced by young people in their adaptive capacity for territorial appropriation.	There are great mobility limitations, increased by the lack of citizen awareness and the spatial discontinuity of the actions implemented, highlighting the resilience of young people with disabilities and their interpretation of the cultural barriers that prevent them from rights to education and social participation.
Ashby, C., White, J.M., Ferri, B., Li, S., & Ashby, L.	Enclaves of Privilege: Access and Opportunity for Students with Disabilities in Urban K-8 Schools	2020	To examine how K-8 schools in an urban district impacted access and inclusion for students with disabilities, and how these schools became enclaves of privilege.	Mixed methods. The study used a historical analysis combined with statistical and spatial methods, framed by DisCrit intersectionality theory. It analyzed demographic and inclusion trends in K-8 schools versus traditional middle schools.	K-8 schools became wealthier and predominantly white. Students with disabilities in these schools were more likely to be placed in inclusive classrooms compared to those in traditional middle schools.	While K-8 schools aimed to enhance student services, they ended up reinforcing privilege and inequality, benefiting more affluent students and perpetuating inequities for students with disabilities.
Galimullina A., Korotkova S.	Adapting the architecture of school buildings in the context of humanizing the environment	2020	Schools in America, Europe, and Asia were considered in the course of research on this theme. Typical examples of modern buildings for children’s spaces are presented. An analytical result of the architectural models is carried out on the basis of a number of criteria.	To examine the impact of the urban situation, the natural environment, and accessibility for all. The proposed elements, including identity, sound and light comfort, proportionality and clear navigation, are the criteria for assessing the accessibility of a school building.	The categories of factors that are necessary for the formation of a favorable adaptive-developing environment are identified: (1) urban planning situation, (2) climate condition, (3) sustainable design, (4) energy saving technology, and (5) the space planning aspect (principles of universal design).	It is necessary to meet the requirements of universal design. The impact of the urban situation, the natural environment, and accessibility for all make it possible to create an interconnected structure of the school development environment. The proposed elements, including identity, acoustic and lighting comfort, proportionality and clear navigation, are the criteria for assessing the accessibility of a school building. Accessibility is best demonstrated when it is “embedded” as an integral part of the design and construction process.
Gelpi, A., Locatelli Kalil, R, M. & de Oliveira, W. M.	Post-occupancy Evaluation Focused on Accessibility: Experience of Participation in the University Community [*chapter]	2020	Present a post-occupancy evaluation focused on the physical accessibility in an institution of higher education.	Qualitative. The methodology procedures include photography record, surveys, walkthroughs, and interviews with the university community.	The preliminary results show that the implementation of accessibility in university campuses still needs to raise awareness on universal accessibility and urban democracy.	Inclusion on campuses requires accessibility in open spaces and buildings. The access roads, the pedagogical environments of the campus, and the coexistence of administrative, educational, and recreational activities must allow the free circulation of pedestrians and people with disabilities or reduced mobility. The participation of the university community is essential.
Jigyel, K., Miller, J. A.; Mavropoulou, S. & Berman, J.	Benefits and concerns: parents’ perceptions of inclusive schooling for children with special educational needs (SEN) in Bhutan	2020	To explore Bhutanese parents’ perceptions of the benefits and their concerns in relation to the inclusive education of their children with special educational needs.	Qualitative. 26 parents (13 fathers and 13 mothers) of children with SENs, either fully or partially included in three pilot schools with SEN programs located in urban, semi-urban, and rural regions in Bhutan were individually interviewed.	Inclusion was associated with social benefits for parents of children with developmental disabilities, while parents of children with physical disabilities perceived the caring and supportive environment as the major gain from inclusion.	Implications for parent advocacy in the school and the need for counselling both for parents and their children, and training for teachers, are discussed in the conclusion.
Kundu, A., Bej, T. & Dey, K. N.	Indian educators’ awareness and attitude towards assistive technology	2020	To investigate Indian mainstream secondary school teachers’ awareness and attitude toward assistive technology (AT) and its implementation level in an inclusive setting.	Mixed methods. Descriptive survey within the cross-sectional research design. The approach consisted of a mixture of quantitative (e.g., questionnaire surveys) and qualitative (e.g., interviews) methods. A survey was distributed among 150 teachers in 15 secondary schools following the stratified random sampling technique.	Findings revealed that teachers’ awareness of AT was not up to the satisfactory level, yet they showed an overall positive attitude toward it. Regarding teachers’ knowledge, professional support, or institutional support, the inadequacy was obvious almost everywhere.	The implementation of AT in schools faces major barriers due to lack of policies, awareness, and financial limitations. Male teachers have slightly higher awareness but are overpowered by females, with urban schools showing slightly better attitudes.
Hernández Sánchez, A. Mejía Sánchez, J., de la Torre Sánchez, C. E, & Córdoba-Moreno, L. G.	3D Haptic Models for Children with Visual Impairment: An Approach to the Historic City	2020	To create and evaluate 3D haptic models to improve accessibility to urban and architectural heritage for children with visual impairments.	Case study. Although it is not explicit, the article describes a case study on a project in the city of Puebla (Mexico). The research involved the development, evaluation, and printing of two 3D models using technology for children with blindness and visual weakness.	The 3D models were found to effectively promote urban accessibility and autonomous mobility among children with visual impairments. These models were also helpful in teaching navigation in historical environments.	The study demonstrated that 3D haptic models can enhance accessibility and inclusivity for visually impaired children in urban spaces, offering practical applications in education.
Campos, P.	Inclusive Campuses: Contributions from Urban Planning, Architectural Composition, and Functional Profile	2021	To provide guidelines for creativity related to planning inclusive campuses, where a human, formative, and spatial integration of people with intellectual disabilities is promoted.	Theoretical review (historical analysis). Study analyzed historical university models and proposed a set of planning guidelines and architectural typologies aimed at improving inclusion and access	The recommendations focused on community-building, spatial composition, and functional strategies to create spaces that encourage inclusion and optimize campus environments for all users.	Guidelines are presented for planning inclusive university campuses that can enhance the physical and emotional experiences of students with disabilities. The spatial forms condition behavior. If any campus must achieve high levels of sensitivity to the community, this sensitivity is especially important when dealing with vulnerable groups.
Jones, N., Tapia, I. S., Baird, S., Guglielmi, S., Oakley, E., Yadete, W. A., … & Pincock, K.	Intersecting barriers to adolescents’ educational access during COVID-19: Exploring the role of gender, disability and poverty	2021	This article investigates the social determinants affecting adolescents’ access to education during COVID-19 in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Jordan. It aims to understand how factors like gender, poverty, and disability exacerbate educational inequalities during the crisis.	Mixed methods. The study draws on data from the Gender and Adolescence: Global Evidence longitudinal study. It includes phone surveys with 4441 respondents, 500 qualitative interviews with adolescents aged 12–19, and key informant interviews.	The findings indicate that the pandemic worsened existing vulnerabilities related to educational access. Gender, poverty, and disability intersected to amplify social inequalities, making it harder for marginalized adolescents to access education during the pandemic.	The study underscores the need for inclusive distance education policies that address the compounded effects of gender, poverty, and disability during emergencies. These insights highlight the importance of tailored responses to ensure equitable access to education in crisis contexts.
Jones, N., Muz, J., Yadete, W.	‘People Consider Us Devils’: Exploring Patterns of Exclusion facing Adolescents with Disabilities in Ethiopia	2021	This article examines the patterns of exclusion faced by adolescents with disabilities in Ethiopia. It aims to highlight the educational, bodily integrity, and psychosocial challenges these young individuals face and to provide insights for improving inclusive services in low- and middle-income countries.	Mixed methods. The study is based on quantitative and qualitative data collected between 2017 and 2018. It analyzes the experiences of adolescents with various disabilities, including visual, hearing, and physical impairments, in both rural and urban communities in Ethiopia.	Adolescents with disabilities encounter multiple barriers to inclusive education, are at greater risk of gender- and age-based violence, and experience higher levels of psychosocial distress than their peers without disabilities. These intersecting challenges significantly impact their well-being and social inclusion.	The study emphasizes the need for specialized training and mentorship for educators and service providers, support networks for parents, and the strengthening of disability-inclusive social protection systems. Addressing these gaps is critical to ensuring that the call to “leave no one behind” in the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals is met.
Kearney, K. B., Joseph, B., Finnegan, L., & Wood, J.	Using a Peer-Mediated Instructional Package to Teach College Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities to Navigate an Inclusive University Campus	2021	To teach students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) to navigate a large university campus using Google Maps™, supported by peer-mediated instructional methods.	Single-subject multiple-probe design. A peer-mediated package experience is described. This included total task presentation and error correction.	All students acquired the skills with 100% accuracy and maintained the skill after the instructional package was removed. Social validity data indicated that students enjoyed learning the mediator skill. Implications and future research are discussed.	The method was effective, and the peer-mediated instructional approach contributed to the students’ independence and confidence in navigating a large campus.
Rose, R., Narayan, J., Matam, S. & Reddy Sambram, P.	A comparison of provision and access to inclusive education for children with disabilities in a metropolitan city and a rural district in Telangana State, India	2021	To compare the provision and access to inclusive education for children with disabilities in a metropolitan city and a rural district in Telangana State, India. The research sought to understand disparities between urban and rural settings in implementing inclusive education policies.	Qualitative. Semi-structured interviews with two purposive samples of families with children with disabilities and professionals who support them. A purposive sample of parents and professionals was obtained from schools in urban Hyderabad (N = 5) and rural Sangareddy District (N = 5) in Telangana State. The peer interviews were conducted in English and Telugu, with data analyzed thematically.	While professionals in both locations were willing to support inclusive education, there was a significant gap in access to services between rural and urban areas. Families in rural districts faced greater difficulties in accessing necessary support. Participants in both areas experienced a lack of professional development and training opportunities for educators and support staff.	The study highlights disparities in access to inclusive education, particularly between rural and urban regions. Addressing these disparities requires more professional development opportunities and centralized services in rural areas. Further research is recommended to bridge the gap and improve inclusive education practices.
Zelasqui, I. O.	Más allá de una problemática urbana: Accesibilidad edilicia y educación inclusiva para personas con discapacidad	2021	To describe the situation of schools in the city of La Plata in terms of building accessibility and human rights standards and present various dimensions and possible analytical tools to think about the problem of accessibility to inclusive education for people with disabilities.	Quantitative/descriptive. The schools under study were characterised by cross-referencing different variables with current regulations on architectural accessibility for people with disabilities. Five variables were considered: existence of ramps, bell height, adapted bathroom, spaciousness and circulation in classrooms and playgrounds, and disabilities. The sample consisted of 154 educational establishments in the city of La Plata, representing more than a third of the total.	The results show that most of the schools in the city of La Plata, both public and private, are inaccessible to people with disabilities due to the multiple physical barriers they present.	Physical or building accessibility means a struggle for a reinterpretation of the school space and education. Divergent corporealities in schools highlight tensions and contradictions of this normalized space and allow (re) thinking of new spaces that facilitate other ways of linking and pedagogy, in this case, inclusive of diversity.
Alduais, A. & Deng, M.	Stakeholders’ perceptions of equity in providing special education and inclusive education services in China: Zero rejection and multiple provision mechanisms	2022	To explore stakeholders’ perceptions of equity in providing special education and inclusive education services in China, focusing on the implementation of the government’s zero-rejection policy and the mechanisms designed to ensure equal educational opportunities.	The research involved interviews with nine Chinese stakeholders, offering insights into the gaps in educational provision between genders, educational levels (primary vs. secondary), and geographical areas (urban vs. rural).	There are disparities in access to education. Gender differences were attributed to social, biological, and demographic factors. Rural areas face challenges due to worker migration to cities. Rural regions, being geographically dispersed, struggle with establishing schools. Primary and middle school enrolment is higher due to compulsory education, while families face financial challenges when children attend high schools or vocational schools.	The study highlights significant gaps in China’s provision of inclusive education, particularly between genders, urban and rural areas, and educational levels. Addressing these disparities requires enhanced resource allocation, especially in rural areas, and support for families with children attending higher levels of education.
Rojo-Ramos, J., Vega-Muñoz, A., Contreras-Barraza, N., Barrios-Fernandez, S.	Female and Rural School Students Show More Positive Attitudes toward Disability during Physical Education Lessons	2022	To explore students without disabilities’ attitudes toward their peers with disabilities in the second stage of Primary Education, examining possible differences according to sex (male or female) and school location (urban or rural).	Quantitative. Cross-sectional study based on the Scale of Attitudes towards Students with Disabilities in Physical Education—Primary Education (SASDPE-PE). The sample consisted of 545 students in the second cycle of Primary Education in public schools in Extremadura (Spain).	Findings showed that female students and those from rural schools had significantly more positive attitudes toward their peers with disabilities during PE lessons compared to male and urban students. These differences were statistically significant.	The study highlights the importance of PE lessons in fostering positive attitudes toward students with disabilities. The SASDPE-PE scale proved to be an effective tool for measuring attitudes. The findings suggest the need for targeted attitude-change programs, particularly for male students and those in urban schools, to enhance inclusive education.
Alhusban, A A. & Almshaqbeh, S. N.	Delivering an inclusive built environment for physically disabled people in public universities (Jordan as a case study)	2023	Determine the design factors that may affect disabled students. Evaluates and compares the built environment of Jordanian public universities and international universities based on Americans with Disabilities. Examines the degree of satisfaction of people with physical disabilities with the built environment and the relationships/interrelationships between student demographic factors, design factors, and their degree of satisfaction.	Mixed methods. Review, observation, and questionnaire. Additionally, analytical and statistical methods, such as comparative analysis between the local cases and the selected international case study based on the Americans with Disabilities Act checklist, version 2.1, descriptive analysis, and Pearson r correlational statistics.	Jordanian public universities did not apply all the necessary design factors to achieve a high degree of accessibility of the built environment like international universities. It found that there was a strong to very strong positive linear association and a significant correlation/intercorrelation between the availability and the design quality of parking, entrances, doors, lobbies and corridors, bathrooms, signage systems and information, ramps, elevators and stairs, and the disabled students’ satisfaction degree.	Inclusive design is a relatively new architectural concept. It provides means to ensure equal access and participation in the built environment, offers the opportunity to simultaneously improve and design new equivalent solutions in architecture, and paves the way for a broad clarification of equality.
Solis García, P. & Real Castelao, S.	Actitudes hacia la inclusión de estudiantes con discapacidad en profesorado de secundaria	2023	To analyze the attitudes of secondary school teachers toward the inclusion of students with disabilities, as these attitudes significantly influence inclusive or discriminatory practices in the classroom and serve as a reference for student behavior.	Quantitative/descriptive. A questionnaire with 22 items distributed across five dimensions (responsibility, performance, training and resources, classroom climate, and social development) was administered to 99 secondary school teachers, 74.7% of whom were women, primarily from urban schools (78.8%).	The results showed that, overall, teachers held positive attitudes towards inclusion, with homogeneous scores across all dimensions. However, significant differences were identified based on the type of educational institution and professional variables, such as years of experience. Teachers from subsidized schools and those with more years of experience exhibited more positive attitudes.	The study concludes that there is a need for the creation of interdisciplinary working groups among teachers and for specific training and practice programs related to diversity. These programs should focus on both new and experienced teachers, particularly in public schools, to improve teacher attitudes, which is a key factor for the success of inclusive practices.
Gil-Mastalerczyk, J.	Discovering others and transforming the world together—The effect of an innovative attitude in sustainable design	2023	This study aimed to examine the impact of innovative attitudes in sustainable design, focusing on the architectural and urban approaches that promote accessibility and social, spatial, economic, and environmental coherence in urban development.	In-depth analyses of innovative architecture with pro-environmental and pro-social potential based on experiments using simulation methods with various types of disability and its simulations were carried out at the building and urban space scales. The research was conducted in the Department of Architectural and Urban Theory and Design (DAUTD) at Kielce University of Technology, Poland.	Incorporating innovative attitudes in sustainable design leads to the development of architectural concepts that promote social inclusion and enhance the quality of life for people with disabilities. The study also highlighted the importance of broadening the range of architectural approaches to foster sustainable and inclusive urban development.	The findings underscore the need for continuous education and awareness among young architects regarding sustainable and universal design. Promoting these concepts is vital for creating inclusive, sustainable cities that cater to diverse populations, including individuals with disabilities.
Gil-Mastalerczyk, J. & Kraska, K.	Education through inclusive and multi-sensory experiences—a real social space accessibility audit	2023	The study aimed to investigate the accessibility of social spaces for people with disabilities and future seniors in the context of socio-demographic changes and aging populations. The focus was on identifying architectural and urban barriers that contribute to social exclusion and determining the spatial needs that support independence in daily living.	Based on experiments using simulation methods with old-age simulators, disability, and disease simulators or wheelchairs. Architecture students from Kielce University of Technology in Poland participated in the research, conducting data collection and analysis in the Sady Kielce Housing Cooperative, built in the 1960s–1970s.	The study revealed several architectural and urban barriers that impede accessibility in social spaces, contributing to the exclusion of people with disabilities. The students identified key spatial needs that, if addressed, could significantly improve independence for disabled individuals in their daily lives.	The findings emphasize the importance of addressing accessibility in urban planning and design. The study not only enriched the practical and observational skills of architecture students but also highlighted the need for future architects and urban planners to integrate inclusive and accessible design solutions in their work to promote social inclusion.
Kameni, E.D. & Tekouabou Koumetio, S.C.	The Role of Inclusive Educational Technologies in Transforming African Cities into Inclusive Smart Cities	2023	To explore how inclusive educational technologies can contribute to transforming African cities into inclusive smart cities, ensuring equitable access to education and technological advancements for all citizens, including those with disabilities and from marginalized communities.	Theoretical review. This work identifies the roles that inclusive educational technologies can play in transforming cities into inclusive smart cities.	The inclusive smart city design methodology involves the integration of technology to improve the quality of life for all citizens. The study finds that while smart city initiatives mostly benefit urban centers with access to technology, rural and marginalized urban areas are often left out. Inclusive educational technologies can bridge this gap in an equitable manner.	Inclusive educational technologies are crucial for transforming African cities into truly inclusive smart cities. They can ensure that all individuals have the skills and knowledge necessary to participate in and benefit from the digital economy. The study highlights the importance of integrating these technologies into urban planning to achieve equitable access to smart city benefits for everyone.

(in Appendix A) shows the main items of the 29 studies selected after the different screening phases. The purpose of this table is to synthesize and organize the most relevant information. The entries, in order of publication date, are organized in the following fields: authors; title; purpose; methodology procedures; findings and/or results; and conclusions.

The tabulation of the data provides a broad overview of the studies at a first glance, as well as a reduction in the information obtained for better description. This phase of the research is an essential step for its subsequent processing. The interpretation of the data is based on eminently qualitative premises, even though some of the techniques used in the selected studies are quantitative. This responds to the fact that the research question and objectives are qualitative, as well as the intention to deepen and refine their understanding. For both the tabulation and the elaboration of results and discussion, a line-by-line reading of the texts under study was carried out. A prior categorization was proposed, based on the following themes: (1) presence and scope of the dual socio-educational dimension; (2) education stage, characteristics of the socio-educational institutions, and other experiences; (3) accessibility and design; (4) barriers and facilitators; and (5) proposals for improvement.

3. Results and Discussion

Table A1 (in Appendix A) serves as an initial step for the identification of patterns and trends in relation to universal accessibility and socio-educational spaces. In a first approximation, the small number of papers finally selected for this review seem surprising. If we review the chronology of the studies, we find that the first decade of the century does not yield any results, while the first results occur in 2013, i.e., at the beginning of the second decade of the century. In the following year (2014), we find two results, while in 2015, the results drop again to one article. Meanwhile, 2016 and 2018 have one article each year (2017 is blank), with four in 2019. The years 2020 and 2021 are the most significant, with six papers each, while in 2022 we find only two; five (5) results were found in 2023. The search, conducted in August 2024, yielded no studies in the current year.

If we look at the methods used in the research, four studies are based on a quantitative methodology; five studies use mixed methods; one is a systematic literature review, and two studies are exclusively theoretical. The remaining seventeen studies respond to a qualitative methodology. This seems to fit with the widely held idea that a good part of educational research is more interested in interpreting and understanding than in quantifying its objects of study.

In order to clarify the data and relate them to the type of study selected, we present the number of articles per year and their respective methodological strategies in Figure 2.

3.1. Presence and Scope of the Dual Socio-Educational Dimension

As we have already mentioned, the premise of the dual socio-educational dimension is fulfilled in all the selected studies. This restriction is based on the search itself, defined by the descriptors (educat*) and (social*). As can be seen, both topics are connected by the Boolean AND. The union of these two dimensions offers a plausible explanation for the few studies evaluated after applying the eligibility criteria. We understand that the socio-educational pairing drastically reduces the selected studies, as it requires a social perspective to be evident in educational and pedagogical work. The combination of these two dimensions is not arbitrary. On the contrary, it responds to the purpose of valuing publications that explicitly present a social intentionality in the urban understanding of educational spaces. Such explicitness highlights the fact that the social and community components occupy a prioritized place in research proposals and objectives.

The models or paradigms that integrate education and society appear in one way or another in the selected studies, which sometimes resort to some of these authors as the theoretical basis of their socio-educational approach. For example, Demir-Mishchenko [57], attentive to the socio-spatial environment and the academic and social participation needs of university students, turns to Dewey to reinforce the idea of inclusion in the social and pedagogical spheres, as a premise of community democracy. Starting from an environmental perspective, it can be said that the study is situated in a socio-critical approach and with the intention of social change.

To give a few examples, the social dimension appears explicitly in the work of Alhusban and Almshaqbeh [58], who point out that university students with some type of physical disability encounter numerous obstacles that prevent their full participation in the cultural, social, and professional spheres. This reduces their opportunities for access to family, community, and political life, that is, to full participation in the society in which they live.

Gelpi et al. [59] point to the inclusion and permanence of young people and adults in university environments as a fundamental strategy to raise the educational level of the population, thus contributing to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. This vision addresses lifelong learning and the SDGs as drivers of equity and social justice.

With respect to the study conducted in Bhutan by Jigyel et al. [60] on parents’ perceptions of inclusive schooling for children with special educational needs (SENs), Bhutan’s recent entry into inclusive policies and philosophies makes the undifferentiated translation of educational policies a major concern in the transition from special to inclusive education. As the authors point out, the “borrowing policy” from other countries has been problematic in this regard, due to differences with the Asian country’s socio-cultural context. Thus, the authors call for this dimension to be very much present in ministerial policies and in their recent emphasis on enabling full access and participation of students with SEN.

Galimullina and Korotkova [61] add that, in response to improvements in education and development areas, modern educational spaces should be saturated with all systems of socialization. They state that “In the future, education was an inseparable part of the formation of a person and society, the system of social inheritance” (p. 1). The authors argue that in Russia, where immersion in inclusive education is also recent, special attention is paid to the comparison of various aspects of social and home education. It will be from the encounter between these two spheres, the main agents of socialization, that the new institutions focused on the individual characteristics of the child, i.e., with an inclusive vocation, will emerge.

Sorani- Villanueva et al. [62] introduce the socio-economic component in their work by focusing on the inclusion of low-income African American and Latino students with disabilities and their transition to a more inclusive school. As they point out, this is an understudied at-risk sample, the study of which can shed light on a number of issues related to inclusion. They point out that socialization can reduce the stigma associated with disabilities and prepare students for interactions outside the school environment. After all, they insist that the educational inclusion of students with disabilities is a complex process that requires support and collaboration among multiple members of the school setting and its environment to be effective. A failure to adequately address the difficulties that may arise with inclusive practices can lead to problems in multiple aspects of the lives of these students. It can be affirmed that all of the above is intensified in cases of groups with multiple social vulnerabilities.

Finally, the review includes several studies in which the social dimension is the main theme, presented as a broader and more complex framework where education plays a key role alongside other aspects of community life. The inclusion of these studies is explained in the following section.

3.2. Education Stage, Characteristics of the Socio-Educational Institutions, and Other Experiences

Of the selected papers, ten correspond to elementary schools, two correspond to secondary schools, and one is dedicated to K-8 schools [63], that is, elementary and middle schools in the United States. K-8 schools enroll pupils from pre-school to grade 8, combining primary school and secondary or middle school. They were launched in 2007 to avoid the transition between primary and secondary school and increase student achievement. In addition, some studies emphasize the transition processes from special education to inclusive education in contexts that involve a situation of change in their socio-educational models (e.g., Jigyel et al. [60], Galimullina and Korotkova [61], or Sorani-Villanueva et al. [62]).

As can be seen in Figure 3, studies focused on elementary school are the most prevalent and are closely followed by studies on higher education. This may reflect the importance that basic education places on inclusion in general. For its part, the university campus, as an urban ecosystem, has its own role as a site of socio-educational urbanism. In contrast, it is worth noting how little of a presence secondary school has, especially considering the processes of change and the adaptive and identity crises typical of puberty and adolescence.

We find that while some studies do not differentiate between rural or urban schools, or make no reference to this typology, others use this categorization as a key of their analyses. The article by Rose et al. [64] is precisely based on this differentiation, finding that there are disparities in access to inclusive education, especially between rural and urban regions. The study found that both rural and urban areas offer few opportunities for professional development and training for educators and support staff. Regarding the attitudes of professionals, in both areas they show a willingness to support inclusive education. However, a significant inequality in access to services is detected. This means that families in rural districts have to face greater difficulties in accessing the necessary support, which translates into more barriers and fewer facilitators in the inclusion of children. The authors conclude that to address these disparities, more professional development opportunities and centralized services are needed in rural areas.

The research of Alduais and Deng [65] follows these themes, focusing on equity in the provision of special and inclusive education services in China. The study highlights significant disparities between genders, urban and rural areas, and levels of education. It shows that rural areas face challenges due to the migration of workers to cities, resulting in a higher number of students in industrialized areas. Rural areas, being geographically dispersed, face challenges in establishing schools. Furthermore, enrollment in primary and secondary education is higher due to compulsory education, while families face financial issues when children attend secondary or vocational schools. Regarding gender differences, these were attributed to social, biological, and demographic factors. The authors emphasize the need to improve resource allocation, especially in rural areas, and to support families with children attending higher levels of education.

With respect to urban schools, Graham et al. [66] show the importance of improved policies that integrate transportation solutions into inclusion models. Again, this highlights the urgency of undertaking improvements that consider different moments and spaces of the school day. The transportation difficulties are also pointed out by other authors. Ross et al. [67] report that families sometimes encounter technically accessible, but functionally inaccessible, school site parking options in Canadian schools. Further, families are frequently required and relied on by schools to perform various types of access work (physical, temporal, and social) to compensate for school site inaccessibility.

Regarding studies on K-8 schools, the authors conclude that although K-8 schools were intended to improve services to students, they ended up reinforcing privilege and inequities, benefiting more affluent students and perpetuating inequities for students with disabilities [63].

If we stick to gender and area, research on perceptions show that female students and those from rural schools had significantly more positive attitudes toward their peers with disabilities during Physical Education lessons compared to male and urban students [68]. In terms of the application of assistive technology in India, urban teachers show slightly better knowledge and attitudes [69].

Nine articles are dedicated to the university context, with the inclusive campus as one of their main topics of interest. Below, we will address this subject more deeply. For the moment, suffice it to say that the relationship between universal design and architectural barriers points in one way or another towards the achievement of inclusive campuses along lines similar to smart cities. This is due to the conception of the campus as an urban space itself or a university city.

We would like to highlight two papers dealing with disability in the context of university social responsibility [70,71]; these papers deal with the university as an active agent of change and transformation in urban planning. Both report on a research project carried out with architecture students at the Kielce University of Technology (Poland), in which the accessibility of social spaces for people with disabilities and future seniors was studied. The study was based on experiments with simulation methods of various types of disabilities and their scale simulations of buildings and urban spaces. The research aimed to identify architectural and urban barriers that contribute to social exclusion and to identify spatial needs that favor independence in everyday life. They are an example of the necessary linkage of the university with the community in which it is inserted, and its responsibility in the social return of its research actions.

It should be noted that some of the selected articles deal with issues that, although having an educational dimension, are not specific to the school space. After weighing up whether or not to include them, it was decided to take them into account, in response to the theoretical models of the city as an educational space, and the vision of education in a broad and social sense. Given the nature of this review, we understood that their inclusion was opportune. Thus, we consider, for example, studies on adolescence, including studies on visual, hearing, and physical impairments, which examine the patterns of exclusion faced by adolescents with disabilities in Ethiopia [72]. For its part, the paper on the intersection of barriers to educational access for adolescents during COVID-19 [51] highlights the need for inclusive distance education policies that address the combined effects of gender, poverty, and disability during emergencies. Also, on the African continent, some papers more specifically focus on education and inclusive technologies as a driver of smart cities [73]. In addition, the work by Hernández-Sánchez et al. [74] presents an experience with 3D haptic models for visually impaired children in a historic city.

3.3. Barriers and Facilitators

The existence of barriers to inclusion is, by far, the most frequently mentioned factor in the selected studies. This factor is not only included as an underlying aspect, but as a central notion of the various research projects and subjects of study. We find some approaches in a broad sense and others that are more specific, either because they focus on specific disabilities or because they deal with specific barriers, and most of them have an architectural nature.

Physical barriers are undoubtedly the element that has traditionally attracted most interest as an object of study. Architectural barriers provide tangible evidence of the need to increase facilitators. Thus, physical accessibility is the focus of the studies like of those Alhusban and Almshaqbeh [58], Gelpi et al. [59], or Linares-García et al. [75]. Demir-Mishchenko [57] also focuses on sensory barriers and visual accessibility, while Ravenscroft et al. [76] focus on visual impairment and Jones et al. [77] focus on visual, hearing, and physical barriers. Finally, autism spectrum disorder is the subject of the study by Johnson [78].

Zelasqui [79] describes the situation of schools in the city of La Plata (Argentina) in terms of building accessibility. From a legal approach based on human rights, the author addresses the architectural barriers in educational establishments, considering five variables: existence of ramps, bell height, adapted bathroom, spaciousness, and circulation in classrooms and playgrounds. The results show that in 2021, most of the schools in the city of La Plata, both public and private, were inaccessible to people with disabilities due to the multiple physical barriers they present.

Perceptions, attitudes, and experiences (of teachers, families, students with disabilities, classmates, staff members, and stakeholders in general) have considerable weight in the articles analyzed. These can contribute to understanding the needs and feelings of diverse students and the people they live with. Studies whose subjects are families [60,66,67] are important in the socio-educational research area. In this way, Ross et al. use a critical ableist studies (CAS) perspective to deliberately engage with the experiences and viewpoints of families [67]. Obviously, students with disabilities provide invaluable input in identifying barriers and facilitators [53,54]. As can be guessed, this type of research takes place at the most advanced stages of education, usually with university students.

On the other hand, such research helps to understand the experiences and concerns of teachers and contribute to identifying possible attitudinal barriers or facilitators. In their study of secondary school teachers’ attitudes, Solís et al. [80] argue that improving teachers’ attitudes is a key factor for the success of inclusive practices. Overall, teachers held positive attitudes towards inclusion. However, significant differences were identified according to the type of school and professional variables such as years of experience. Teachers in grant-aided schools and those with more years of experience showed more positive attitudes. The study concludes that there is a need for the creation of interdisciplinary working groups among teachers and for specific training and practice programs related to diversity. According to the authors, these programs should focus on both new and experienced teachers, especially in public schools.

Kuhl et al. [81] show, for example, that Australian teachers support the idea of inclusion but report challenges such as a lack of support, high staff turnover, and limited access to professional development. These issues are amplified by the rural context. In a study concerning a rural area in Tanzania, it was revealed that teachers’ practices are not uniform when it comes to promoting equality for people with disabilities. In Westbrook et al.’s research, teachers reported on material, structural, and attitudinal barriers that hindered full inclusion. However, the ability of teachers to take action proved to have the potential to overcome these challenges [82]. Finally, transportation barriers emerge as one of the main issues in both urban and rural areas where students need to travel to school [62,66,74].

In some cases, teachers’ attitudes do not align with proper training. This is evident from the research conducted by Ravenscroft in Turkey, which concludes that, although in general, the teachers showed positive attitudes towards inclusion (positively influenced by their initial and ongoing training), they felt ill-prepared to teach children with visual disabilities. This reiterates the need to enhance post-qualification training in order to better prepare teachers for inclusion [76].

A similar trend is observed in the knowledge and attitudes of Indian educators towards assistive technologies. The results of a study in this context revealed that the teachers’ level of knowledge about ATs was not satisfactory, although they generally showed a positive attitude towards them [69]. Similarly, research shows that there is a need to improve the preparation and resources of Massachusetts teachers in order to effectively include students with autism in mainstream schools [78].

Nevertheless, as has already been seen in different parts of this article, the boundary between the types of barriers is diffuse, with elements being interrelated [66,82,83]. In this sense, Alhusban and Almshaqbeh [58] conclude that improving accessibility and reducing barriers in the built environment design enhances inclusion for any student regardless of age or ability, increases well-being, comfort, privacy, confidentiality, and self-esteem, and encourages full participation in society. They emphasize that improving physical barriers brings about comprehensive facilitators, which increases participation.

It can be stated that Demir-Mishchenko’s [57] study responds to a social paradigm, in which the environment is presented as a potential disabler and, on the other hand, as a potential facilitator in cases of improvement. From this perspective, the study transcends physical barriers to contemplate sensory barriers and, although less explicitly, it addresses barriers to participation in the broad sense of students with disabilities. This idea is in line with the proposals of Booth and Ainscow [45], who are mainly responsible for formulating an inclusive conceptualization based on socio-educational barriers and facilitators from a multidimensional perspective.

From comprehensive perspectives, Sorani-Villanueva et al. [62] point out that the challenges of inclusion cover several areas. These dimensions transcend aspects exclusively related to the architectural area and universal design and include aspects of universal design for learning (UDL). The need to make environments more flexible for students with disabilities and the implementation of academic modifications and supports are pointed out. In addition, the low graduation rates of students with disabilities reflect the need to modify the curriculum and provide appropriate support. The five main issues that emerge are as follows: academic, behavioral, mobility/accessibility, social, and transportation issues. Once again, this underlines that the system of barriers and facilitators is complex and interrelated. In this web, the division between learning and participation disappears not only in the school, but also in its immediate environment and integral development. A clear example is mentioned by researchers who explain that when students are unable to attend class or extracurricular activities due to accessibility or transportation difficulties, their academic opportunities and psychosocial development may be affected.

Spatial forms condition our behavior and mood [81]. This is especially relevant in childhood. As Galimullina and Korotkova [61] point out, children are much more receptive to changes in their environment than adults and are highly dependent on spatial conditions. Such reception will strongly influence their personalities, from the perspectives of growth and integral evolution. They mention that, in the modern world, educational and development spaces are organizations with specific purposes, tasks, and functions. This results in the formation of socio-educational spaces with delimited objectives, in which barriers and facilitators are structured around those of learning and participation. Both typologies encompass various aspects of the pedagogical and community environment. But, as they point out, at the same time, these spaces differ significantly from each other, both in the ways of organizing activities and in the conformation of the architectural environment. This differentiation affects both the physical and didactic structure and design. For this reason, different types of classrooms may correspond to different behaviors and learning styles. The search for new methods and the differentiation of those already established to shape the architecture of children’s spaces will therefore be dictated by the need for a variety of architectural environments, as well as the importance of their influence on emotional and behavioral perception. Here, the aim is to create environments which are conducive to the adaptive and holistic development of all students.

Together with reasons related to developmental stages, the above reasons may explain why research about younger age groups places greater emphasis on a holistic perspective on inclusion. At higher levels, the focus is generally on more physical and architectural aspects. As mentioned above, the very structure of a campus as a public, urban, and collective space gives content to architectural approaches and infrastructure analyses. However, research is giving increasing importance to the social relations of diverse students.

Both Russia and Bhutan are at an earlier stage of educational inclusion than other geographical contexts. This is recognized in the research works of Galimullina and Korotkova [61] and Jigyel et al. [60], which were conducted in these countries, respectively. The former indicates that the concept of inclusive education was introduced in Bhutan during 2011–2012, that is, very recently if compared to other countries and continents such as UK, USA, Australia, or Europe. Thus, the notion is at an early stage, with many challenges that prevent the successful implementation of inclusive practices (among them, the aforementioned concern about the “borrowing policy”).

In addition to the lack of adaptation to the Bhutanese context, the authors mention several difficulties identified in moving towards an inclusive policy. These are the shortage of trained teachers, inadequate assessment practices, lack of community involvement, minimal collaboration between parents, and financial constraints. Attitudinal barriers are some of the most important, as noted in previous works and again highlighted by the authors: parental involvement in Bhutanese schools is minimal, especially in rural areas. This lack of involvement can be attributed to parents’ beliefs that teachers at school are in the best position to make decisions about teaching and learning. Therefore, beliefs and representations are revealed as another impediment to the inclusive pathway, as part of the attitudinal barriers of the different actors involved.

3.4. Design and Inclusion

As stated by Alhusban and Almshaqbeh [58], design concepts and approaches to ensuring accessibility include the following: design, barrier-free design, universal design, design for all, and inclusive design. All these approaches put inclusion at the center, with the goal of creating environments that facilitate people’s freedom and reduce those obstacles that hinder or impede their ease of movement and access. In short, and as stated in the various accessibility and universal design guides published in recent decades, everyone should be able to enter all places, attain jobs, and make use of the built environment without assistance.

The authors remind us that this commitment to inclusive design is not about specific architecture for disabled populations, but a philosophy of design and transformation based on individual differences. This requires planning, construction, and management processes for public spaces that are attentive to a wide range of potential users, not just specific groups. The idea involves people with disabilities as well as the elderly, children, and also healthy people who have to carry groceries, push a baby carriage, or move a piece of furniture. Thus, inclusive design is not only about needs for the disabled population, but a potential change for the entire community. Such a vision again connects with the social character of public spaces, including socio-educational ones, and emphasizes the creation of smart and sustainable cities with inclusion as one of their main axes.

In this challenge, it seems essential to involve stakeholders and professionals from different areas, as it is a transdisciplinary task. As has already been explained, the research conducted in the Department of Architectural and Urban Theory and Design (DAUTD) at Kielce University of Technology (Poland) [70,71] explain the experiments carried out with their students. These initiatives focus on the importance of addressing accessibility in urban planning and design. To this end, it is essential that young architects and urban planners integrate inclusive and accessible design solutions into their work, which requires continuous education and awareness-raising on sustainable and universal design (UD).

Alhusban and Almshaqbeh [58] claim that inclusive design is a relatively new architectural concept. The application of these concepts thus represents a step towards removing barriers imposed on the built environment in public universities and creating an accessible environment. Architectural universal design (UD) researchers established a model that would later be transferred to broad pedagogical proposals, such as universal design for learning (UDL), which since the late 1980s has been related to theories, practices, and regulatory frameworks aimed at inclusion. This design is based on the principles of motivation or involvement, representation, and expression [41], and its purpose is to embrace the different abilities, interests, motivations, and sources of diversity of all students. It is based on inclusive goals, which seek to minimize barriers to learning and participation in order to ensure that each individual benefits from equitable learning opportunities tailored to his or her needs [66].

In Galimullina and Korotkova’s [61] study on adapting the architecture of school buildings, the essential aim is the humanization of the environment and environmentally friendly sustainability and child development in all its dimensions. In their comparison with countries and contexts other than Russia, the authors emphasize those factors that can contribute to sustainable design. The criteria proposed to evaluate school accessibility are as follows: identity, acoustic and lighting comfort, proportionality, and clear navigation. The urban situation, natural and landscape aspects, the presence of nearby social infrastructures, the values of attractiveness and stimulation in the form of acoustic comfort, orientation and acoustic diversity, and climatic conditions are some of the elements to be taken into account. This involves interaction with the natural environment and an understanding of environmental situations as particular states of the environment caused by the interaction of nature and a child’s activities. According to the authors, it is necessary to create rich, transformable, multifunctional, variable, and accessible environments, capable of responding to the transformations of the world. Among other aspects, it is advocated that a thorough evaluation of the landscape and climatic design features is the basis for the further development of functional zoning options for the territory of the selected site.

At this point, we would like to draw attention to acoustic comfort in classrooms as an important factor to be taken into account in the design of learning spaces. This is demonstrated by papers such as that of Pellegati et al., who, after conducting a systematic review, found that there is a close relationship between sound and the well-being of students. The study concludes that while the noise of fans causes a negative effect, the natural sounds of open windows consistently produced a positive effect on learning and student comfort. As for anthropogenic sounds entering classrooms under natural ventilation conditions, negative or no effects were generally observed, depending on the specific task and noise characteristics [84].

Such results are fully in line with research on indoor soundscapes, a recent approach that brings a perceptual perspective to the acoustics of buildings and spaces. As reported in Torresin et al.’s study, the goal is to shape built environments that sound good according to the preferences and needs of their occupants [85]. In this regard, experts in the field point to the importance of perceptual and multisensory research and integrated participatory design practices to enable a holistic view of the complex interrelationships between buildings and users and the design of just cities. This perceptual perspective is expected to expand the scientific evidence of the negative and positive impacts of the acoustic environment on human health, well-being, and quality of life. This will support the prioritization of the role of acoustics in building design and challenge many current design practices that rely on a noise control approach [85].

As Demir-Mishchenko [57] notes, the growing number of students with disabilities in higher education in the new century has led to a growth in the literature on disability related to university contexts. However, in contrast, he points out that studies that have explicitly focused on the physical environments of university campuses in relation to users with disabilities are insufficient.

Alhusban and Almshaqbeh [58] recall that the concept of “sustainability in higher education” was coined in the 1972 Stockholm Declaration in order to link humanity with the environment and recognize their interdependence in achieving sustainability. The authors take up the concept of the sustainable university proposed by Velazquez in 2006, who defines it as an institution of higher education “as a whole or as a part, that addresses, involves and promotes, on a regional or a global level, the minimization of negative environmental, economic, societal, and health effects generated in the use of their resources in order to fulfill its functions of teaching, research, outreach and partnership, and stewardship in ways to help society make the transition to sustainable lifestyles”. In this sense, if every university complex must attain high levels of sensitivity toward the community that will inhabit it, this sensitivity becomes especially important when it comes vulnerable groups [86].

To conclude this section, it should be noted that contemporary campus design is central to the architectural and urban planning theories of the beginning of the last century. Mehaffy et al. [87] state that such widely discredited trends have left their negative imprint on many of today’s campus designs. In their opinion, the organizational patterns run counter to the functioning of the pedestrian space, the real driving force of activity in these socio-educational complexes.

The concept of campus as a university city has a long history in university urban culture. It has been joined by other notions, such as knowledge cities or smart campuses. The concept of smart cities alludes to a concept of urban planning at the service of quality of life and the well-being of citizens, encompassing elements of energy efficiency, governance, participation, and sustainability. University campuses represent an exceptional opportunity to enhance this approach, as they concentrate a large community of students, professors, and employees, forming a population that is willing to adopt and promote innovations, as well as to get involved [88]. Indeed, in his historical overview of the notion of the university campus, Campos argues for the campus as an urban inspiration for social inclusion [86].

3.5. Proposals for Improvement

The universal transformation of socio-educational environments entails proposals for improvement in their conception and design. To begin with, Demir-Mishchenko [57] proposes the identification of problems as a starting point for a subsequent practical application. The author bets on a combination of objective (comprehensive checklist) and subjective methods (meetings with participation of students with and without disabilities, academic advisors from different departments of the university, and the staff of the University’s “barrier-free life” unit, workshops, etc.) as a strategy that will lead to the realization of realistic improvements which are attentive to the socio-educational reality of the participants. The principles of universal design are pointed out as key to the creation and development of inclusive campuses.

Regarding practical applications for more inclusive campuses, Gelpi et al. [59] focus on mobility and physical accessibility. They point out that, to include students, teachers, and the community in such spaces, it is necessary to have accessibility in open areas and buildings. Access roads, campus pedagogical environments, and the coexistence of administrative, educational, and recreational activities should allow for the free circulation of pedestrians and people with disabilities or reduced mobility.

Alhusban and Almshaqbeh [58] provide guidelines and checklists for architects and policy makers to apply in the design and adaptation process. The availability, accessibility, and high-quality design of spaces (parking lots, sidewalks, public spaces, doors, hallways, lobbies, ramps, restrooms, elevators, non-slip materials, entrances, stairs, handrails, signage, and orientation systems) are pointed out by students with disabilities as drivers of satisfaction. Along with these factors, the authors recommend that legislation and guidelines be continually reviewed to empower people with disabilities and facilitate their access to the various facilities of educational institutions. In addition, students with disabilities should be involved in the different phases of design and implementation. The study points out the need for designers to understand the experience of disability and illness as a natural part of life, to create environments without barriers and obstacles, and to facilitate movement and independent and dignified living for people with disabilities and other groups.

As we have seen throughout these pages, teacher training is one of the key aspects to improve the inclusion of diverse students and their full participation in socio-educational life. The recommendations of Jigyel et al. [60] to schools, professionals, policy makers, and other stakeholders are mainly concerned with the shortage of teachers trained in special education needs. They therefore recommend that the Ministry of Education and the University of Bhutan make provisions as a matter of priority and implement them without delay. In addition to this, the provision of caregivers and paraprofessionals to assist students with SENs in schools would alleviate the burden of resource shortages and stay-at-school mothers. Aligned with this recommendation is the need for respite care, especially for parents caring for children with greater needs, often without a break throughout the day. Additionally, the government and relevant agencies are urged to provide professional and therapeutic services in rural regions to assist children with special needs and their parents. This stresses the need for advocacy and education programs to ensure a more accurate awareness of the implications of including children with SENs, as well as the need for counseling services for both children and their parents.

Sorani-Villanueva et al. [62] made an effort to categorize the problems of students with disabilities and the solutions offered, as well as the actors in charge of putting them into practice. The study shows that academic problems are solved by teachers; behavioral problems are solved through collaboration between teachers and family; transportation difficulties require cooperation between schools, district offices, and bus companies; and in relation to social problems, it is the students themselves who take the initiative. Finally, accessibility and mobility barriers are reduced thanks to the collaboration between schools, district offices, and aides. It is concluded, therefore, that collaboration and communication between the different socio-educational agents are essential components for inclusion.

In the same respect, and from their CAS perspective, Ross et al. emphasize the value of engaging families to improve accessible school parking, reduce the amount of work imposed on families who have children with disabilities, and move towards fairer access to education. During the school planning process, talking with and learning from families can help school developers understand and take into account the diverse day-to-day experiences of families. As a result, more user-friendly designs and less effort to access education can be found [67].

In terms of the educating dimension of the city, research calls for incorporating technology and data-driven solutions into the design methodology for inclusive smart cities. The study of Kameni et al. found that while smart city initiatives predominantly benefit those living in urban centers with access to technology, rural and marginalized urban areas are often left out of these advances. Inclusive educational technologies have the potential to address this gap by providing educational and training opportunities to all citizens, regardless of socio-economic status or physical abilities [73].

4. Limits of the Study

The main limitation of this research lies in the limited number of articles found on the subject of the study. This scarcity prevents us from getting a clear picture of the trends in inclusion and universal accessibility in socio-education. As already noted, this demonstrates a clear gap in studies that include the social dimension in an explicit way.

Also, on two occasions it was difficult to decide which papers should be included, as the social dimension of the papers prevailed over the educational dimension. This shows the difficulty of recognizing the explicitness of terms and areas, which may be one of the major complexities of the review. Nevertheless, we started from the recognition of these risks, which lie in the very essence of education and its social nature.

On the other hand, we are aware that a comparative study should take into account aspects relating to different countries and geographical areas. Obviously, the socio-educational nature of the study has an important contextualizing element, which, on this occasion, has not been possible to address beyond some differences such as educational stage or urban/rural schools. However, this, as well as the cross-sectional and longitudinal differences in the studies analyzed, the typology of barriers and facilitators, and other issues that will further refine and enrich the discourse, remain to be explored on later occasions.

5. Conclusions

In summary, from the perspective of new urbanism and universal accessibility, socio-educational dialogue occupies a priority place in the attention and improvement of pedagogical environments, understood as a space for learning, development, and social participation. This is even more relevant for groups who are at risk of vulnerability. Socialization processes can reduce the stigma associated with disability and prepare students for interactions outside of school areas. It has been shown that space conditions our behavior, our feelings and, therefore, our learning processes. It is especially relevant in childhood, as children are more receptive to changes in their environment and are very dependent on spatial conditions. All this underscores the need to create places that are friendly, sustainable, humanized, and respectful of child development in all its dimensions: design, barrier-free design, universal design, design for all, and inclusive design.

The evaluated studies show that the design of socio-educational spaces can be a source of barriers or a facilitator of inclusion. As the social paradigm advocates, environments can be favorable or unfavorable, inclusive or exclusive, and equitable or inequitable. Despite this, there are very few studies that combine urbanism, universal accessibility, inclusion, and socio-educational spaces from a social perspective. It seems significant that until well into the century, no study in this regard has been found. Although there appears to be a slight increase in some years, given the limited sample found, it seems rash to draw conclusions about a greater interest in socio-educational dialogue, at least explicitly. However, the insufficiency of studies is informative in itself. This gap highlights the need to make the socio-educational field (in its dual dimension) in new urbanism and its relationship with urban sustainability more prominent.

In the studies analyzed, barriers are one of the most investigated dimensions. Of these, the most common are physical and architectural barriers, followed by sensory barriers (visual and auditory, in that order). As for possible attitudinal or training barriers, most studies show a good integrative attitude on the part of teachers, although they point out a lack of training. In terms of their multidimensionality, most of the selected studies continue to show a greater tendency to analyze and interpret physical and architectural barriers, although they tend to relate them to integral aspects of inclusion. However, as we have seen, it is difficult to establish the boundaries between the different dimensions. This gives rise to a network of profound interrelationships between barriers and facilitators of all kinds.

Research on schools and early educational stages has long tended to address holistic aspects of inclusion. This includes physical, cognitive, affective, psychological, and social aspects. University research, for its part, began by focusing on the architectural structures of campuses, and has gradually opened its sights to social participation. This may be due both to the evolutionary and developmental stages of their respective students and to the urban, structural, and interaction typologies of the different socio-educational enclosures. Nevertheless, as can be seen from various papers, there are still many barriers in schools in different parts of the world. Parking, lack of resources, rural/urban disparity, gender, and socio-economic factors are some of the difficulties that multiply the risk of vulnerability, with a greater effect in some geographical areas. In this sense, several authors from countries in the process of transition to inclusive models are concerned that government policies should be the most appropriate and warn against ‘borrowing policies’ and their decontextualized application.

Regarding education stage, studies that focused on elementary school are the most prevalent, closely followed by higher education. While there are two studies that address adolescence in general terms, only one of the studies found deals with secondary education. Considering the changes and possible identity crises that occur at this stage, it seems important to increase research in this area.

As we said, alongside architectural barriers, studies on inclusive campuses are increasingly looking at the social dimension of inclusion. University students with some type of physical disability encounter numerous obstacles that prevent their full participation in the cultural, social, and professional spheres. This reduces their opportunities for access to family, community, and political life. Free movement on campus and the coexistence of administrative, recreational, and socio-cultural activities is one of the essential aspects to be improved on many university sites. However, university campuses represent an exceptional opportunity as inspiring urban models of inclusive cities. Their nature as small-scale cities can teach us about smart cities [89,90] and make them potential models of sustainability for the new socio-urbanism. Urban planners and architects need to integrate inclusive and accessible design solutions into their work, which requires continuous education and awareness-raising on sustainable and universal design. Finally, it is essential to rely on people and their experiences. This would be to respect what the disability rights movement claims: ‘Nothing more about us without us’). Some of the selected research yields important information about the needs, perceptions, and feelings of people with diversity and their immediate environment.

We conclude, therefore, with the urgency to continue researching lines related to urban planning, universal accessibility, and socio-educational spaces, understood from their dual nature and function as pedagogical and community landscapes. All this should be conducted from integral and universal perspectives, since only an approach that contemplates all the dimensions of education, human beings, and their relationship with the natural and urban environment can lead to the creation of more inclusive environments in each and every one of its dimensions. From our point of view, this requires putting the social in the foreground, i.e., building the socio-educational dialogue in an explicit way and not simply taking it for granted.