Flash Point Improvement of Mineral Oil Utilizing Nanoparticles to Reduce Fire Risk in Power Transformers: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Transformer Oil (TO)
3. Nanoparticles (NPs)
3.1. Material-Based NPs
3.2. Dimension-Based NPs
3.3. Synthesis of NPs
4. Preparation of Nano Insulating Liquid (NIL)
4.1. One-Step Method
4.2. Two-Step Method
4.3. Concentration
4.4. Stability of NIL
4.5. Stability Enhancement Methods
Mechanical Method
4.6. Stability Enhancement Mechanism
4.7. Stability Evaluation Method
5. Encouraging Significant Discovery
5.1. Flash Point Prediction Method
5.2. Flash Point Testing Method
Ref. | Formula | Aplicability | Variable | Eq. No. |
---|---|---|---|---|
[95] | Compounds (FP: 124–204 °C) |
| (15) | |
[96] | Hydrocarbons (BP: 20–340 °C) |
| (16) | |
[97] | Hydrocarbon and petroleum fraction (BP greater than 500 °F) |
| (17) | |
[97] | Hydrocarbon and petroleum fraction (BP greater than 500 °F) |
| (18) | |
[98] | Organic compounds |
| (19) | |
[99] | Organic compounds (Tb range: −13.7–365 °C and FP: −69–193 °C) |
| (20) | |
[100] | Hydrocarbons |
| (21) | |
[101] | Organic liquid |
| (22) | |
[102] | Hydrocarbons (BP: 20–340 °C) |
| (23) | |
[103] | Hydrocarbons |
| (24) | |
[104] | Compounds |
| (25) | |
[105] | Hydrocarbons (BP: 200–700 °F) |
| (26) | |
[106] | Hydrocarbons |
| (27) |
5.3. The Influence of NPs on Flash Point
5.4. Minimizing Fire Risk in Transformers
5.4.1. Detection of Gas Accumulation in Oil
5.4.2. Monitoring Dangerous Gases
5.4.3. Pressure Protection
5.4.4. Fire Prevention
5.5. Research Potential and Future Challenges
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
MO | Mineral oil |
TO | Transformer oil |
NF | Nanofluid |
NP | Nanoparticle |
IEC | International Electrotechnical Commission |
ISO | International Organization for Standardization |
ASTM | American Society for Testing and Materials |
C60 | Fullerene |
GO | Graphene oxide |
CNTs | Carbon nanotubes |
Fe3O4 | Iron(II,III) oxide |
AuNPs | Gold nanoparticles |
AgNPs | Silver nanoparticles |
ZnO | Zinc oxide |
TiO2 | Titanium oxide |
CdSe | Cadmium selenide |
Al2O3 | Aluminum oxide |
CuO | Copper oxide |
NaOH | Sodium hydroxide |
NH4OH | Ammonium hydroxide |
SiO2 | Silicon dioxide |
AGQD | Amine-treated graphene quantum dots |
CCTO | Calcium copper titanate |
TEM | Transmission electron microscopy |
NIL | Nanoinsulating liquid |
g/L | Mass-to-volume ratio |
wt% | Weight percent |
vol% | Volume percent |
w | Weight |
m | Mass |
bf | Base fluid |
ρ | Density (kg/m3) |
∅ | Concentration symbol for volume fraction |
BM | Brownian motion |
Aλ | Absorbance |
I | Intensity of the laser light beam after passing through the colloidal suspension |
Io | Intensity of the incident laser light |
α | Absorptivity |
c | Concentration of particles |
DLS | Dynamic light scattering |
FP | Flash point |
CST | Stoichiometric concentration |
C | Carbon |
S | Sulfur |
O | Oxygen |
H | Hydrogen |
X | Halogen |
BP | Boiling point |
Tb | Normal boiling point |
sg | Specific gravity (m/s2) |
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Transformer Oil | Type | Specifications |
---|---|---|
MO | Paraffinic | Nonring long-chained |
Naphthenic | Saturated ring | |
Aromatic | Nonsaturated ring | |
Synthetic oil | Polyalphaolefins | Polymerization of hydrocarbon molecules |
Polyglycols | Oxidation of ethylene and propylene | |
Synthetic ester | Reaction of acids and alcohols with water | |
Organic oil | Soybean oil Coconut oil Cottonseed oil Rapeseed oil | Non-toxic, biodegradable, low inflammable, high breakdown voltage, flash point, acidity, viscosity, and pour point |
Properties | MO | Synthetic Oil | Organic Oil | Test Method |
---|---|---|---|---|
Breakdown voltage (kV) | 30–85 | 45–70 | 82–97 | IEC 60156 [12] |
Relative permittivity at 25 °C | 2.1–2.5 | 3.0–3.5 | 3.1–3.3 | IEC 60247 [13] |
Viscosity at 0 °C (mm2/s) | <76 | 26–50 | 77–143 | ISO 3104 [14] |
Viscosity at 40 °C (mm2/s) | 3–16 | 14–29 | 16–37 | ISO 3104 [14] |
Viscosity at 100 °C (mm2/s) | 2–2.5 | 4–6 | 4–8 | ISO 3104 [14] |
Pour point (°C) | −30 to −60 | −40 to −50 | −19 to −33 | ISO 3016 [15] |
Flash point (°C) | 100–170 | 250–270 | 315–328 | ISO 2592 [16] |
Fire point (°C) | 180–185 | 300–310 | 350–360 | ISO 2592 [16] |
Density at 20 °C (kg/dm3) | 0.83–0.89 | 0.90–1.00 | 0.87–0.92 | ISO 3675 [17] |
Specific heat (J/g·K) | 1.6–2.0 | 1.8–2.3 | 1.5–2.1 | ASTM E1269 [18] |
Thermal conductivity (W/m·K) | 0.11–0.16 | 0.15 | 0.16–0.17 | ASTM D7896 [19] |
References | Formula | |
---|---|---|
Wilk et al. [30] | (1) | |
(2) | ||
Li et al. [31] | (3) | |
(4) | ||
Li et al. [32] | (5) | |
Kannaiyan et al. [33] | (6) | |
Moldoveanu et al. [34] | (7) | |
Reddy et al. [35] | (8) | |
Radkar et al. [36] | (9) | |
Dalkılıç et al. [37] | Hybrid NPs | (10) |
Kakavandi et al. [38] | Hybrid NPs and two base fluids | (11) |
Zeta Potential (±mV) | Stability |
---|---|
0 | Lack of stability |
0–15 | Marginally stable |
15–30 | Moderate stability |
30–45 | Satisfactory stability (sedimentation occurs) |
45–60 | Outstanding stability (minimal sedimentation) |
≥60 | Exceptional stability |
No. | Ref. | Year | NPs | Concentrations (wt%) | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | [108] | 2014 | MWCNTs | 0.001; 0.01 | The optimal concentration of 0.001 wt% resulted in a 4.6% increase in flash point, whereas concentrations higher than 0.01 wt% led to a decrease in the flash point. |
2 | [109] | 2013 | MWCNTs | 0.1; 0.2; 0.5 | Increasing the concentration of carbon nanotubes up to 0.2 wt% resulted in a flash point increase of about 13%. However, with concentrations up to 0.5 wt%, the flash point showed a decreasing trend. |
3 | [111] | 2017 | AGQD | 0.001 | A significant increase in flash point was observed when 0.001 wt% of AGQD was added to the transformer oil. |
4 | [78] | 2021 | TiO2; ZnO | 0.00001; 0.00003; 0.00006; 0.00008; 0.0001 | The addition of both types of nanomaterials caused an increase in the flash point of the oil blend. However, the increase caused by ZnO NPs was greater compared to the increase caused by TiO2 NPs. |
5 | [107] | 2013 | Al; Cu; CuO; Al2O3 | 0.005; 0.023; 0.045; 0.45; 0.9 | The flash point values of Al2O3, aluminum, CuO, and copper-based NFs show significant increases for various concentration. Copper NP-based transformer oil shows the highest enhancement of flash point. |
6 | [66] | 2017 | Fe3O4; ZnO; SiO2 | 0.032; 0.064; 0.096; 0.128; 0.16 | The flash point increases with the rising concentration of all types of NPs. |
7 | [110] | 2017 | CCTO | 0.003; 0.006; 0.028 | The flash point increases as the concentration of CCTO in the MO increases. |
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Khoirudin; Kristiawan, B.; Sukarman; Abdulah, A.; Santoso, B.; Wijayanta, A.T.; Aziz, M. Flash Point Improvement of Mineral Oil Utilizing Nanoparticles to Reduce Fire Risk in Power Transformers: A Review. Fire 2024, 7, 305. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7090305
Khoirudin, Kristiawan B, Sukarman, Abdulah A, Santoso B, Wijayanta AT, Aziz M. Flash Point Improvement of Mineral Oil Utilizing Nanoparticles to Reduce Fire Risk in Power Transformers: A Review. Fire. 2024; 7(9):305. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7090305
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhoirudin, Budi Kristiawan, Sukarman, Amri Abdulah, Budi Santoso, Agung Tri Wijayanta, and Muhammad Aziz. 2024. "Flash Point Improvement of Mineral Oil Utilizing Nanoparticles to Reduce Fire Risk in Power Transformers: A Review" Fire 7, no. 9: 305. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7090305