Fire, Volume 8, Issue 10 (October 2025) – 36 articles

The Global Cement and Concrete Association (GCCA) estimated that by 2050, 36% industry-wide sustainable value will be created, which includes sequestering CO₂ into the cement and concrete industry to produce commercially feasible high-value products. Direct utilization of CO₂ in the cement and concrete industry, which utilizes natural and sustainable materials, is gaining momentum. Naturally occurring mixtures of hydro magnesite and huntite are important industrial minerals which, upon endothermic decomposition over a specific temperature range, will release water and CO₂. This unique chemistry has led to such mixtures being successfully utilized as fire retardants, replacing aluminum hydroxide or Alumina Tri-Hydrate (ATH). Despite the developed marketplace for magnesium-based fire-retardant products, there is little mention of CO₂ mineral carbonation methods, which attempt to recover and convert magnesium from natural seawater or industrial waste into oxides or carbonates as part of the carbon sequestration initiative. The hypothesis to be proven in this work states that if the process of seawater mineral carbonation is prematurely quenched, Mg²⁺ ionic species in seawater adsorbed on the calcite lattice formation will be trapped and therefore recovered in various oxidized forms, such as magnesium oxides, magnesium hydro magnesite, and magnesium carbonate precipitates. A novel method to recover magnesium Mg²⁺ ions from seawater was successfully explored and documented; as such, from an initial concentration of 1250 ppm Mg²⁺ in raw seawater, the average concentration of spent Mg²⁺ ions after the reaction was as low as 20 ppm. A very efficient near-total recovery of Mg²⁺ from the seawater into the solid precipitates was recorded. Subsequently, the process for continuous seawater mineral carbonation for the production of magnesium/brucite/huntite products was successfully proven and optimized to operate with a 30 s reaction time, a dynamic feedstock concentration, [CaO] at 1 gpl in seawater and a room temperature reaction temperature (30 °C), where the average yield of the fire-retardant magnesium-based compounds was 26% of the synthesized precipitates. Approximately 5000 g of the hydro magnesite materials was molded into a fire-retardant brick or concrete wall, which was subjected to an accredited fire performance and durability testing procedure BS476-22:1987. There were encouraging results from the fire resistance testing, where the fire-retardant material passed BS476-22:1987, with performance criteria such as physical integrity failure, the maximum allowable face temperature, and a minimum duration before failure, which was up to 104 min, evaluated. Full article

(1) Background: Firefighters, exposed to diverse and unpredictable occupational environments, face cumulatively increased physical health risks. The purpose of this study was to assess the standardized prevalence ratios (SPRs) of occupational and chronic diseases in firefighters and the general population, categorized into pre-disease and disease stages; (2) Methods: This study was a community-based, retrospective, cross-sectional study. Data sources included the occupational health examination of 7024 firefighters and the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1485 general populations in 2019. Statistical analyses were performed using SAS version 9.4 SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA. SPRs of chronic and occupational diseases were calculated for each pre-disease and disease stage, and chi-square tests were performed; (3) Results: Data were analyzed from a cohort of 7024 firefighters who consented to the access and use of their occupational health examination results, 91.9% (n = 6456) were male, the average age was 43 years, the average number of years of service was 15.3 years. Among the five classifications of the occupational health examination results, 26.7% (n = 1877) were A, 19.2% (n = 1352) were C1, 42.4% (n = 2980) were C2, 1.5% (n = 108) were D1, and 10% (n = 705) were D2. As a result of calculating the SPRs compared to the general population, in the pre-disease stage, obesity SPR = 1.29 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.23 to 1.34), hypertension SPR = 1.52 (95% CI 1.47 to 1.57), diabetes mellitus SPR = 1.07 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.11), and metabolic syndrome SPR = 1.62 (95% CI 1.57 to 1.66) were all higher in the firefighter group. On the other hand, in the disease stage, metabolic syndrome and complex pulmonary ventilation impairment were higher in SPRs than in the general population, but not statistically significant. However, at the disease stage, SPRs for obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and noise-induced hearing loss were higher and statistically significant in the general population; (4) Conclusions: The SPRs for firefighters produced in this study clearly demonstrate the healthy worker effect. The SPRs, derived from a cross-sectional study, highlight the need for future cohort building of firefighters to track and monitor health outcomes, as well as systematic and thorough health management interventions to prevent progression from pre-disease to disease. Therefore, this study can be utilized in the development of mid-to-long-term firefighter health promotion programs and health and safety plans to minimize firefighters’ physical health and occupational exposures. Full article

To prevent or mitigate the negative impact of fires, spatial prediction maps of wildfires are created to identify susceptible locations and key factors that influence the occurrence of fires. This study uses artificial intelligence models, specifically machine learning (XGBoost) and deep learning (Kolmogorov-Arnold networks—KANs, and deep neural network—DNN), with data obtained from multi-sensor satellite imagery (MODIS, VIIRS, Sentinel-2, Landsat 8/9) for spatial modeling wildfires in Serbia (88,361 km²). Based on geographic information systems (GIS) and 199,598 wildfire samples, 16 quantitative variables (geomorphological, climatological, hydrological, vegetational, and anthropogenic) are presented, together with 3 synthesis maps and an integrated susceptibility map of the 3 applied models. The results show a varying percentage of Serbia’s very high vulnerability to wildfires (XGBoost = 11.5%; KAN = 14.8%; DNN = 15.2%; Ensemble = 12.7%). Among the applied models, the DNN achieved the highest predictive performance (Accuracy = 83.4%, ROC-AUC = 92.3%), followed by XGBoost and KANs, both of which also demonstrated strong predictive accuracy (ROC-AUC > 90%). These results confirm the robustness of deep and machine learning approaches for wildfire susceptibility mapping in Serbia. SHAP analysis determined that the most influential factors are elevation, air temperature, and humidity regime (precipitation, aridity, and series of consecutive dry/wet days). Full article

This review article critically examines the fire performance of cross-laminated timber (CLT), a key structural material for sustainable construction, by synthesising recent advancements in both experimental and numerical research. It identifies a critical gap between experimental findings and numerical models, offering insights to refine future fire-safe design and research. The article assesses fire design strategies across major international standards and reviews experimental fire testing of CLT elements, highlighting how adhesives, protective cladding, layer thickness, load levels, and support conditions affect fire resistance. This article also summarises CLT compartment tests, focusing on how openings, ventilation size, and protective cladding affect fire dynamics and CLT degradation. A literature review of numerically modelled CLT specimens under fire load is compiled and evaluated based on several criteria, including material characterisation, mesh characteristics, and modelling procedures. Subsequently, the outcomes of two distinct approaches are evaluated, emphasising the disparities in the techniques employed and the difficulties inherent in performing more precise numerical simulations. The article will bridge and inform the gap between experimental tests and numerical analysis, focusing on identifying suitable approaches for such simulations. The study aims to provide a broader understanding of the topic and promote the development of fire-safe design and modelling of engineered timber construction using CLT. Full article

Protected area coverage is set to expand in response to climate change and the biodiversity crisis, but we lack assessments of wildfire incidence in protected areas. Here, we quantify biogeographical variation in global patterns of burned area in protected areas. During the twenty-first century, wildfires have burned 2 billion hectares of protected areas—an area the size of Russia and India combined—and, while protected areas only cover 19.2% of semi-natural ecosystems, they concentrate 28.5% of the area burned annually. Wildfire in protected areas increased significantly between 2001 and 2024 (+0.46% yr⁻¹), even after taking into account increases in protected area (+0.27% yr⁻¹), pointing to a disproportional impact of fire on protected areas under increasingly severe fire weather. This pattern showed marked variation across biomes, with the largest disproportionate increases occurring in fire-prone biomes (e.g., Mediterranean and dry tropical forests, tropical grasslands, and xeric shrublands). There were important exceptions to this general trend, and protected area fire was lower than expected in biomes where fire activity is naturally limited by moisture (e.g., tropical rainforests or montane grasslands). Wildfires are important for the health of many ecosystems, and such values of burned area will not always mean a negative outcome. Amidst concerted efforts to expand protected area coverage, such as the Global Biodiversity Framework, our results highlight the need for new management strategies that address the globally increasing impacts of burned area across protected areas under unabated climate change. Full article

Utility tunnels concentrate various important urban engineering pipelines within a shared underground space, which poses significant fire risks, particularly from cable fires. In this study, a full-scale fire experiment was conducted to investigate the temperature distribution characteristics of cable fires in utility tunnels, along with the effects of spray intensity, cable fullness, and longitudinal ventilation on the extinguishing efficiency of a high-pressure water mist fire extinguishing system (HWMFES). The results show that the maximum heating area of a cable fire in a utility tunnel is localized to the three cable trays nearest to and directly above the fire source, with a peak temperature of 825 °C, while the impact on other areas is negligible. Increasing the spray intensity from 0.7 to 1.0 L/(min·m²) reduced the time required to lower temperatures to 50 °C by 40.8%, while reducing cable fullness from 12 to 6 cables per tray shortened extinguishing time by 22.5%. Additionally, applying a ventilation speed of 2 m/s enhanced cooling efficiency, reducing the time to reach 50 °C by 67.5% compared to still air conditions. These findings provide practical insights and data support for optimizing the design and application of HWMFES in enhancing fire safety in utility tunnels. Full article

This study validates numerical models for mixed polymer combustion in a B-707 aircraft cargo compartment against Federal Aviation Administration test data. A simplified approach using a predefined mass loss rate was compared with a detailed model coupling in-depth heat transfer and pyrolysis kinetics based on the assumption of negligible co-pyrolysis effects. Both approaches reliably captured smoke dynamics and light transmission. The detailed model predicted the mass loss rate with high accuracy, matching the experimental value of 0.11 g/s at 200 s after the ignition. However, it significantly overpredicted the heat release rate with a peak value of 8 kW versus 5 kW in the experiment. This discrepancy was examined through a sensitivity analysis of key parameters: the radiative fraction, heat of combustion, turbulence model, and pyrolysis kinetics. The Smagorinsky model best captures the growth pattern of the heat release and mass loss rates, despite its larger deviation from the experimental data compared to other models. The analysis revealed that the radiative fraction and the activation energy of high heat-of-combustion materials like high-density polyethylene are the most influential parameters. One possible solution to the overestimation is the calibration of the activation energy and heat of combustion values for high-energy materials like HDPE. The results confirm the detailed model’s physical realism for fire spread modeling and highlight a path for improving its heat release rate predictions. Further investigation is required across a wider range of computational cases with varying sample mass fractions, compositions, geometries, and boundary conditions to establish the broader applicability of this approach. Full article

Forest and grassland fire behavior prediction is increasingly critical under climate change, as rising fire frequency and intensity threaten ecosystems and human societies worldwide. This paper reviews the status and future development trends of wildfire behavior modeling and prediction technologies. It provides a comprehensive overview of the evolution of models from empirical to physical and then to data-driven approaches, emphasizing the integration of multidisciplinary techniques such as machine learning and deep learning. While conventional physical models offer mechanistic insights, recent advancements in data-driven models have enabled the analysis of big data to uncover intricate nonlinear relationships. We underscore the necessity of integrating multiple models via complementary, weighted fusion and hybrid methods to bolster robustness across diverse situations. Ultimately, we advocate for the creation of intelligent forecast systems that leverage data from space, air and ground sources to provide multifaceted fire behavior predictions in regions and globally. Such systems would more effectively transform fire management from a reactive approach to a proactive strategy, thereby safeguarding global forest carbon sinks and promoting sustainable development in the years to come. By offering forward-looking insights and highlighting the importance of multidisciplinary approaches, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers, supporting informed decision-making and fostering interdisciplinary collaboration. Full article

To investigate the performance patterns of high-pressure water mist sprinklers with different flow coefficients in smoke containment and thermal insulation during fire suppression, this study conducted droplet size experiments and small-scale fire tests at 8 MPa pressure using six sprinkler types with flow coefficients (K) of 0.5, 0.7, 1.0, 1.2, 1.5, and 2.0. These findings were systematically analyzed in conjunction with FDS numerical simulations. Droplet size results indicate optimal atomization for K = 1.0, 1.2, and 1.5 sprinklers, producing fine droplets with concentrated distribution. Small-scale experiments and simulations further compared their smoke suppression and heat insulation performance. Findings show K = 1.5 delivers superior smoke suppression and cooling effects, reducing protected area temperatures by 20~45 °C compared to other conditions while minimizing smoke spread. Although visibility was slightly lower than at K = 1.2 due to droplet size and particle count, the overall performance was superior. This study conclusively identified K = 1.5 as the optimal flow parameter, providing experimental evidence and theoretical support for the engineering application of high-pressure water mist sprinklers. Full article

Hydrogen fuel cell vessels represent a vital direction for green shipping, but the risk of large-scale hydrogen leakage and diffusion in their enclosed compartments is particularly prominent. To enhance safety, a simplified three-dimensional model of the deck-level cabins of the “Water-Go-Round” passenger ship was established using SolidWorks (2023) software. Based on a hydrogen leakage and diffusion model, the effects of leakage location, leakage aperture, and initial ambient temperature on the diffusion patterns and distribution of hydrogen within the cabins were investigated using FLUENT software. The results show that leak location significantly affects diffusion direction, with hydrogen leaking from the compartment ceiling diffusing horizontally much faster than from the floor. When leakage occurs at the compartment ceiling, hydrogen can reach a maximum horizontal diffusion distance of up to 5.04 m within 540 s; the larger the leak aperture, the faster the diffusion, with a 10 mm aperture exhibiting a 40% larger diffusion range than a 6 mm aperture at 720 s. The study provides a theoretical basis for the safety design and risk prevention of hydrogen fuel cell vessels. Full article

The increasing use of wooden cladding in multi-storey buildings raises critical fire safety concerns, especially in ventilated façade systems where the chimney effect can accelerate vertical flame spread. This study combines theoretical analysis with three full-scale fire tests to investigate key factors influencing fire propagation, including the influence of façade design details. Results show that poorly constructed lintels and jambs significantly accelerate flame entry into ventilated cavities, while wooden fire barriers—despite being combustible—can delay flame spread if properly installed. These findings inform design recommendations and underscore the need for more robust fire safety strategies in modern timber construction. Full article

With the enlargement of underground parking lots, the risk of massive smoke and toxic gases generated during a fire will be increased, resulting in significant casualties, property damage, and difficulties in firefighting operations. To address these issues, installation of ventilation fans and inducer fans together has been proposed to extract smoke and hazardous gases more efficiently to the outside. However, the disturbance of ventilation caused by simultaneous operation of inducer fans and ventilation fans limits smoke extraction efficiency. In some worst cases, smoke disturbance may even lead to further smoke spread. Therefore, this study aims to suggest an efficient smoke extraction strategy for underground parking lots equipped with ventilation and inducer fans by optimizing the orientation of ventilation fans in the event of vehicle fires. Computational fluid dynamics-based simulation results showed that installing ventilation fan intakes and exhausts perpendicularly (PE, 90° apart) was more effective in controlling smoke than installing them in parallel (PA, horizontally facing each other). In the case of PE, the smoke stagnation area around the intakes decreased markedly from 38.18% to 3.68%. Although the smoke area near the exhausts increased in the PE configuration (53.66%) compared with the PA configuration (26.13%), this indicates that smoke was being effectively transported from the intakes to the exhausts. Furthermore, the overall smoke distribution across the entire space decreased by 4.5% under the PE setup compared with the PA setup. As the intake and exhaust flow rates of the fans increased, the efficiency of smoke removal was enhanced under the PE configuration. Consequently, in environments equipped with both ventilation and inducer fans with given conditions, perpendicular installation of fan intakes and exhausts is more efficient. These results are expected to provide practical design guidelines for ensuring effective smoke extraction in underground parking facilities. Full article

Electrical cable insulation, mainly composed of polymeric materials, progressively deteriorates under thermal, electrical, mechanical, and environmental stress factors. This degradation reduces dielectric strength, thermal stability, and mechanical integrity, thereby increasing susceptibility to failure modes such as partial discharges, arcing, and surface tracking—recognized precursors of fire ignition. This review consolidates current knowledge on the degradation pathways of cable insulation and their direct link to fire hazards. Emphasis is placed on mechanisms including thermal-oxidative aging, electrical treeing, surface tracking, and thermal conductivity decline, as well as the complex interactions introduced by flame-retardant additives. A bibliometric analysis of 217 publications reveals strong clustering around material degradation phenomena, while underlining underexplored areas such as ignition mechanisms, diagnostic monitoring, and system-level fire modeling. Comparative experimental findings further demonstrate how insulation aging modifies ignition thresholds, heat release rates, and smoke toxicity. By integrating perspectives from materials science, electrical engineering, and fire dynamics, this review establishes the nexus between aging mechanisms and fire hazards. Full article

During the terminal mining phase of in gobs, the advancing rate slows gradually, and the distribution of spontaneous combustion three-zone in gobs undergoes significant changes, yet there remains a lack of simple and effective prediction methods. To address this issue, the oxygen concentration distribution and temperature distribution data on both intake-side and return-side at longwall advancing rates of 2 m/d, 1.2 m/d, and 0.6 m/d were obtained through on-site monitoring. A generative adversarial network was employed to learn from measured data, generating additional usable data to build the dataset. Mining status parameters, oxygen concentration distribution, and temperature distribution were extracted as input variables. Whale optimization algorithm-back propagation model was proposed, establishing nonlinear mapping relationships between advancing rate and initiation depth of oxidation zone/asphyxiation zone. The results demonstrate that (i) the WOA-BP model can effectively predict distribution of spontaneous combustion three-zone during terminal mining phase, significantly improving prediction accuracy compared with BP and AdaBoost-BP; (ii) by SHAP feature analysis, contribution of advancing rate is the highest, which can provide reliable predictive performance; (iii) the slower the advancing rate, the closer the oxidation zone and the asphyxiation zone will be to working surface. This provides a foundational direction for preventing spontaneous combustion in gobs. Full article

To gain a comprehensive understanding of the current research landscape in the field of new energy vehicle (NEV) fires and to explore its knowledge base and emerging trends, bibliometric methods—such as co-occurrence, clustering, and co-citation analyses—were employed to examine the relevant literature. A research knowledge framework was established, encompassing four primary themes: thermal management and performance optimization of power batteries, battery materials and their safety characteristics, thermal runaway (TR) and fire risk assessment, and fire prevention and control strategies. The key research frontiers in this domain could be classified into five categories: mechanisms and propagation of TR, development of high-safety battery materials and flame-retardant technologies, thermal management and thermal safety control, intelligent early warning and fault diagnosis, and fire suppression and firefighting techniques. The focus of research has gradually shifted from passive identification of causes and failure mechanisms to proactive approaches involving thermal control, predictive alerts, and integrated system-level fire safety solutions. As the field advances, increasing complexity and interdisciplinary integration have emerged as defining trends. Future research is expected to benefit from broader cross-disciplinary collaboration. These findings provide a valuable reference for researchers seeking a rapid overview of the evolving landscape of NEV fire-related studies. Full article

The effects of thermal treatment on the changes in the chemical composition and higher heating values (HHV) of tropical hardwood meranti were investigated in a study. The samples of light red meranti wood (Shorea spp.) with dimensions of 20 mm × 100 mm × 700 mm were conditioned at 20 °C (control samples) and thermally treated at 160, 180, 200, and 220 °C. The chemical composition and HHV of control samples and thermally treated samples were evaluated. The chemical composition was measured using the procedures of Seifert, Wise, and ASTM. After thermal treatment, a significant reduction in holocellulose and hemicellulose content and an increase in extractives and lignin were observed. Consequently, we observed a rise in HHVs. HHV of thermally treated wood was strongly positively linearly correlated with lignin content (Pearson r = 0.9850, p < 0.001, R² = 0.9702, n = 15). Regression analysis showed that the model HHV = 0.1443(lig) + 16.012 is suitable for predicting the HHV of thermally treated wood, if the lignin content is known. Full article

To mitigate explosion hazards arising from hydrogen leakage and subsequent mixing with air, the injection of inert gases can substantially diminish explosion risk. However, prevailing research has predominantly characterized inert gas dilution effects on explosion behavior under quiescent conditions, largely neglecting the turbulence-mediated explosion enhancement inherent to dynamic mixing scenarios. A comprehensive investigation was conducted on the combustion behavior of 30%, 50%, and 70% H₂-air mixtures subjected to jet-induced (CO₂, N₂, He) turbulent flow, incorporating quantitative characterization of both the evolving turbulent flow field and flame front dynamics. Research has demonstrated that both an increased H₂ concentration and a higher jet medium molecular weight increase the turbulence intensity: the former reduces the mixture molecular weight to accelerate diffusion, whereas the latter results in more pronounced disturbances from heavier molecules. In addition, when CO₂ serves as the jet medium, a critical flame radius threshold emerges where the flame propagation velocity decreases below this threshold because CO₂ dilution effects suppress combustion, whereas exceeding it leads to enhanced propagation as initial disturbances become the dominant factor. Furthermore, at reduced H₂ concentrations (30–50%), flow disturbances induce flame front wrinkling while preserving the spherical geometry; conversely, at 70% H₂, substantial flame deformation occurs because of the inverse correlation between the laminar burning velocity and flame instability governing this transition. Through systematic quantitative analysis, this study elucidates the evolutionary patterns of both turbulent fields and flame fronts, offering groundbreaking perspectives on H₂ combustion and explosion propagation in turbulent environments. Full article

Fire spotting (FS), the process by which firebrands are lofted, transported, and ignite new fires ahead of the main flame front, plays a critical role in escalating extreme wildfire events. This systematic literature review (SLR) analyzes peer-reviewed articles and book chapters published in English from 2000 to 2023 to assess the evolution of FS models, identify prevailing methodologies, and highlight existing gaps. Following a PRISMA-guided approach, 102 studies were selected from Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, with searches conducted up to December 2023. The results indicate a marked increase in scientific interest after 2010. Thematic and bibliometric analyses reveal a dominant research focus on integrating the FS model within existing and new fire spread models, as well as empirical research and individual FS phases, particularly firebrand transport and ignition. However, generation and ignition FS phases, physics-based FS models (encompassing all FS phases), and integrated operational models remain underexplored. Modeling strategies have advanced from empirical and semi-empirical approaches to machine learning and physical-mechanistic simulations. Despite advancements, most models still struggle to replicate the stochastic and nonlinear nature of spotting. Geographically, research is concentrated in the United States, Australia, and parts of Europe, with notable gaps in representation across the Global South. This review underscores the need for interdisciplinary, data-driven, and regionally inclusive approaches to improve the predictive accuracy and operational applicability of FS models under future climate scenarios. Full article

Indigenous Fire Stewardship (IFS) has long been practiced by Indigenous Peoples to care for the land, reduce wildfire risk, and maintain ecological and cultural values. In British Columbia, Yunesit’in, a member of the Tsilhqot’in Nation, has revitalized their IFS practices following the 2017 Hanceville Fire. As climate policy increasingly supports nature-based solutions, carbon credit programs are emerging as a potential funding source for IFS. This study used grounded theory with interviews to understand Yunesit’in IFS practitioners’ and community leaders’ perspectives on carbon credits. Using the concept of “cultural signatures,” we identified core values shaping community engagement in carbon markets. While most interviewees (7/10) were initially unfamiliar with carbon credits, many saw their potential to support long-term program goals after learning more. Three cultural signatures emerged from the analysis: (1) a sense of stewardship responsibility, (2) the importance of a community-grounded program, and (3) the revitalization of Indigenous knowledge and land-based practices. Interviewees expressed concern that carbon credits might shift the program’s focus away from land and culture toward technical goals that exclude community participation. We conclude that building awareness about carbon and carbon credits among Indigenous Peoples, and supporting engagement processes that reflect cultural signatures in carbon frameworks, are both critical. Full article

This study evaluates the competency-based performance of Initial Incident Commander (IIC) candidates—fire officers who serve as first-arriving, on-scene incident commanders—in South Korea and identifies sub-competency deficits to inform training improvements. Using evaluation data from 92 candidates tested between 2022 and 2024—of whom 67 achieved certification and 25 did not—we analyzed counts and mean scores for each sub-competency and integrated transcribed radio communications to contextualize deficiencies. Results show that while a majority (72.8%) passed, a significant proportion (27.2%) failed, with recurrent weaknesses in crisis response, progress management, and decision-making. For example, “Responding to Unexpected or Crisis Situations 3-3” recorded 27 unsuccessful cases with a mean score of 68.8. Candidates also struggled with resource allocation, situational awareness and radio communications. The study extends recognition-primed decision-making theory by operationalizing behavioral marker frameworks and underscores the need for predetermined internal alignment, scalability and teamwork synergy. Practical implications recommend incorporating high-fidelity simulation and VR scenarios, competency frameworks and reflective debriefs in training programs. Limitations include the single-country sample, reliance on predetermined scoring rubrics and absence of team-level analysis. Future research is indispensable to adopt multi-jurisdictional longitudinal designs, evaluate varied training interventions, assess skill retention and explore the interplay between physical and cognitive training over time. Full article

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of traditional fire management practices in the general mitigation of wildfire risk in Greece. Major emphasis was placed on assessing people’s opinions about the perceived effectiveness of traditional fire management strategies that were historically and culturally employed by local communities—such as weather condition monitoring, prescribed burning, proper land use planning, and mosaic burning—in the general mitigation of wildfire risks. An online questionnaire was used to collect data from 397 environmental experts in Greece. The study shows that traditional fire control methods reduce wildfire risk. First, weather monitoring was found to be crucial to wildfire forecasting and prevention. The results showed that early warning, successful firefighting, and fire prevention depend on meteorological data. Additionally, prescribed burning was revealed to have reduced wildfire risk. Respondents accepted that they could reduce unprescribed fires, protect natural ecosystems, remove wildfire-prone areas, and regulate flame intensity. This suggests that scheduled burning in Greece may reduce wildfire damage. The study underlines the importance of including conventional fire management in the wildfire mitigation strategy of Greece. The aforementioned activities may help the environment and civilization progress by safeguarding ecosystems and reducing wildfire damage. These techniques, combined with community engagement and improved early warning systems, may help manage climate change-induced wildfires. Overall, the study contributes to wildfire management in Greece and other Mediterranean countries. The study emphasizes the need to incorporate traditional fire practices into Greece’s wildfire risk reduction strategies. Taking into account the success rates of these practices in other areas, as well as Greece’s old tradition of conducting fire, this paper stresses that further studies and policy developments be made in order to reinstate these practices in today’s wildfire management. Full article

Previous studies on tunnel fires have primarily focused on tunnels with flat ceilings and lacked studies on tunnels with beams. The present study is predicated on a reduced-scale tunnel model with a beam structure. Through meticulous analysis of the effects of factors such as longitudinal ventilation velocity and beam dimensions, the study unveils the distribution pattern of ceiling temperatures under the longitudinal smoke exhaust mode. The findings suggest that the presence of beams can induce turbulence in the longitudinal ventilation airflow. It has been demonstrated that the magnitude of this phenomenon is directly proportional to the spacing of the beams. This results in fluctuations in the ceiling temperature rise close to the combustion zone. The smoke storage capacity of the open cavities formed between adjacent beams is significantly affected by the beam height, thereby influencing the overall temperature rise beneath the ceiling. The greater the beam height, the higher the overall ceiling temperature rise near the combustion zone, but the lower the ceiling temperature rise downstream of the fire source. A prediction model for the longitudinal decay of ceiling temperature downstream of the fire source in tunnels with beams has been obtained. This model is related to the dimensionless beam dimension. Full article

Under electrical overload conditions, the molten dripping of thermoplastic wire insulation materials—particularly crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE)—poses a severe fire hazard and significantly complicates fire prevention and control. This study systematically investigated the formation mechanism, periodic characteristics, and flame interaction behavior of molten dripping in XLPE-insulated wires subjected to varying overload currents (0–80 A). Experiments were conducted using a custom-designed test platform equipped with precise current regulation and high-resolution video imaging systems. Key dripping parameters—including the initial dripping time, dripping frequency, and period—were extracted and analyzed. The results indicate that increased current intensifies Joule heating within the conductor, accelerating the softening and pyrolysis of the insulation, thus resulting in earlier and more frequent dripping. A thermodynamic prediction model was developed to reveal the nonlinear coupling relationships between the dripping frequency, period, and current, which showed strong agreement with the experimental data, especially at high current levels. Further flame morphology analysis showed that molten dripping induced pronounced vertical flame disturbances, while the lateral flame spread remained relatively unchanged. This phenomenon promotes vertical flame propagation and can trigger multiple ignition points, thereby increasing the fire complexity and hazard. The study enhances our understanding of the coupling mechanisms between electrical loading and molten dripping behavior and provides theoretical and experimental foundations for fire-safe wire design and early-stage risk assessment. Full article

The present study investigated how visual characteristics of a fire influence extinguisher use. Safety guidance indicates that occupants should consider situational aspects when deciding whether to use an extinguisher, such as fire characteristics. The visual fire cues of intensity, growth rate, and smoke thickness were systematically manipulated to examine the impact on judgments to intervene with an extinguisher. Participants (N = 135) viewed simulated fire scenes as part of an experiment and judged whether they could safely attempt to use an extinguisher. The results indicated that the participants were significantly less likely to attempt extinguisher use with greater fire intensity and thicker smoke. In contrast, variations in fire growth rate did not significantly affect participant decisions. These findings indicate that perceived fire intensity and smoke density are strong factors in extinguisher use decisions, while growth rate may not meaningfully influence occupant behavior. Understanding these perceptual factors can inform fire safety education and improve guidance on when extinguisher use is appropriate, potentially enhancing residential fire response outcomes. Full article

This study focused on the Wugong coal fire area in the Zhunnan coalfield of Xinjiang, analyzing 41 soil samples extending from the fire center outward. The key parameters included pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), available potassium (AK), various ions (Ca²⁺, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, SO₄²⁻, CO₃²⁻, HCO₃⁻, and Cl⁻), and heavy metal concentrations (As, Cr, Hg, Ni, Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb). The primary objectives were to evaluate heavy metal pollution levels and potential ecological risks using the single factor pollution index (P_i), the Geo-accumulation index (I_Geo), Nemero’s pollution index (P_n), the pollution load index (PLI), and the ecological risk factor (E_rⁱ) and risk index (RI). Spatial distribution analysis indicated higher heavy metal concentrations in the southwestern and central regions. The heavy metals Cr, Ni, Cd, Cu, and Zn reached mild pollution levels, while Hg exhibited high pollution, with P_i, I_Geo, and P_n values of 3.27, 0.61, and 9.68, respectively. Hg (E_rⁱ = 111.07) and Cd (E_rⁱ = 45.91) emerged as the primary ecological risk factors. The overall ecological risk index (RI) of 184.98 indicated a moderate ecological risk. The results demonstrate that soils surrounding the coal fire zone are significantly impacted by coal fire, characterized by severe heavy metal contamination and nutrient deficiency. Full article

Understanding the dynamics of fire propagation is essential in improving predictive models and developing effective fire management strategies. This study applies computer vision techniques to complement traditional fire behaviour modelling. We employ the Segment Anything Model to achieve the accurate segmentation of experimental fire videos, enabling the frame-by-frame segmentation of fire perimeters, quantification of the rate of spread in multiple directions, and explicit analysis of slope effects. Our laboratory experiments reveal that the ROS increases exponentially with slope, but with coefficients differing from those prescribed in the Canadian Fire Behaviour Prediction System, reflecting differences in field conditions. Complementary field data from prescribed burns in coniferous fuels (C-7) further demonstrate that slope effects vary under operational conditions, suggesting field-dependent dynamics not fully captured by existing deterministic models. Our experiments show that, even under controlled laboratory conditions, substantial variability in spread rate is observed, underscoring the inherent stochasticity of fire spread. Together, these findings highlight the value of vision-based perimeter extraction in generating precise spread data and reinforce the need for probabilistic modelling approaches that explicitly account for uncertainty and emergent dynamics in fire behaviour. Full article

To conduct an in-depth analysis of safety risks in small-scale business premises, this study employed field research to examine small restaurants, small supermarkets, convenience stores, and small hotels within a certain urban area. The investigation identified several critical safety issues across different types of establishments. In small restaurants, major concerns included inadequate emergency response capabilities among responsible personnel, insufficient fire separation between kitchen areas with open flames and public dining zones, as well as missing or malfunctioning emergency lighting and evacuation signage. Small supermarkets and convenience stores exhibited non-compliant electrical wiring installations and absent or defective fire extinguishing equipment. In small hotels, prevalent risks involved the lack of emergency escape respirators in guest rooms, the failure to install fire-rated doors in linen storage areas, and obstructed evacuation pathways due to clutter. Based on these findings, the study proposes practical countermeasures and recommendations aimed at enhancing safety standards in such premises. Full article

There is an urgent and constant need for land reclamation and to restore self-sustaining, stable, and resilient ecosystems. It is necessary to enhance the frequency, consistency, and success rates of applying native plant seed for ecological restoration. Smoke-water can affect seed germination of plants, regardless of whether they occur in fire-prone ecosystems. Germination trials of 18 native species of Indigenous value in the southern interior grasslands of British Columbia, Canada were conducted using a smoke aqueous solution. Locally sourced parent plant material was burned to produce smoke-water. Seeds were collected from multiple populations of the species across a wide geographic range within the B.C. southern interior to increase the genetic diversity of the seed stock. Seeds were soaked in smoke aqueous solution in various concentrates, including 0% (control), 1% (1:100), 10% (1:10), 20% (1:5), and 100%. The results indicate that germination rates in the presence of smoke-water are species-specific. Five species showed an increase in germination with smoke-water (Erythronium grandiflorum, Calochortus macrocarpus, Arnica latifolia, Lomatium nudicaule, and Shepherdia canadensis); four species showed no change (Rosa woodsii, Crataegus douglasii, Lewisia rediviva, and Prunus virginiana); and nine species showed some level of decrease (Fritillaria affinis, Fritillaria pudica, Berberis aquifolium, Claytonia lanceolata, Gaillardia aristate, Balsamorhiza sagittata, Allium cernuum, Amelanchier alnifolia, and Lomatium macrocarpum). Smoke-water also affected germination rate by plant form (herbs > shrubs), plant phenology (spring ephemeral and protracted > summer quiescent and summer mature) and plant dispersal mechanism (wind > animal). The treatments applied to encourage the germination of seeds from interior grassland forbs and shrubs have demonstrated that smoke-water can effectively break dormancy and enhance the germination rate from certain native plant species. Full article

Soundproof enclosures are essential components in ultra-high voltage converter transformer equipment. However, conventional designs pose considerable fire risks, as they may impede fire suppression efforts in case of equipment failure. This study adopted a multi-technique experimental strategy to systematically evaluate the influence of flexibilizer content on the thermal and combustion properties of soundproof enclosures. The methodology combined scanning electron microscopy and thermogravimetric analysis, cone calorimetry and thermal deformation tests. Subsequently, the entropy method was applied to quantify comprehensive fire risk based on the experimental data. The results showed that incorporation of a flexibilizer reduced thermal stability, evidenced by a decrease in the initial pyrolysis temperature from 570 K to 505–545 K at a heating rate of 5 K/min. As flexibilizer content increased, the activation energy (E_α) exhibited a pattern of initial decrease, followed by an increase, and then a subsequent decrease, with most samples exhibiting Eα values below 250 kJ/mol. Simultaneously, flexibilizer addition improved critical fire safety parameters, including reduced heat release rate, total heat release, smoke production, CO₂ release rate, mass loss rate, thermal deformation temperatures, and increased CO release rate. The comprehensive fire risk score decreased significantly from 0.2801 to a range of 0.1147–0.2522 after the addition of the flexibilizer. Thus, this study provides a quantitative assessment of fire safety in ultra-high voltage converter transformer equipment through risk evaluation, offering valuable insights for developing safer enclosure materials. Full article

Forest fire risk assessment methodologies vary considerably, presenting challenges for adaptation to specific local contexts. This study provides a systematic analysis of forest fire assessment approaches across the Mediterranean basin, American, African, and Asian regions through a comprehensive review of 112 peer-reviewed studies published from 2015 to 2025. Statistical significance testing (Chi-square tests, p < 0.05) confirmed significant regional variation in methodological preferences and indicator usage patterns. Key findings revealed that Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis dominates the field (44% of studies, n = 49), with Analytical Hierarchical Process being the most utilized method (39 studies). Machine learning approaches represent 25% (n = 28), with Random Forest leading significantly (22 applications). The analysis identified 67 indicators across seven major categories, with topographic factors (slope: 105 studies) and anthropogenic indicators (road networks: 92 studies) showing statistically significantly highest usage rates (p < 0.001), representing a statistically significant critical gap in vulnerability assessment (p < 0.01). Organizational factors remain severely underrepresented (a maximum of 14 studies for any factor), representing a statistically significant critical gap in risk assessments (p < 0.01). Statistical analysis revealed that while Mediterranean approaches excel in integrating historical and cultural factors, American methods emphasize advanced technology integration, while Asian approaches focus on socio-economic dynamics and land-use interactions. This study serves as a foundation for developing tailored assessment frameworks that combine remote sensing analysis, ground-based surveys, and community input while accounting for local constraints in data availability and technical capacity. The study concludes that effective forest fire risk assessment requires a balanced integration of global best practices with local environmental, social, and technical considerations, offering a roadmap for future forest fire risk assessment approaches in different regions worldwide. Full article