Geomatics, Volume 5, Issue 4 (December 2025) – 12 articles

Predicting subsoil properties accurately is important for engineering tasks like construction, land development, and environmental management. However, traditional approaches that use borehole data often face challenges because the data is sparse and unevenly spread, which can cause uncertainty in understanding the subsurface. This study introduces a novel geostatistical framework employing Empirical Bayesian Kriging 3D (EBK3D) within a Geographic Information System (GIS), which was developed to construct three-dimensional lithological models. The framework was applied to 265 boreholes from the Queen Mary Reservoir in London. ArcGIS Pro was used to interpolate lithology layers using EBK3D, resulting in voxel-based models that represent both horizontal and vertical lithological variations. Model validation was performed with an independent dataset comprising 30% of the boreholes. The results demonstrated high predictive accuracy for layer elevations (Pearson’s r = 0.99, MAE = 0.31 m). The model achieved 100% accuracy in predicting borehole stratigraphy in homogenous zones and correctly identified 77% of lithological layers in heterogeneous zones. In complex regions, the model accurately predicted the whole borehole in 49% of cases. This framework provides a reliable, repeatable, and cost-effective method for three-dimensional subsurface characterization, enhancing traditional approaches by automating uncertainty quantification and capturing both vertical and horizontal variability. Full article

The southwestern region of China is highly susceptible to landslides due to steep terrain, fractured geology, and intense rainfall. This study focuses on the Xiluodu Reservoir area in Yunnan Province and applies Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques together with ten key spatial factors—such as slope, lithology, elevation, and distance to rivers—to perform a quantitative landslide risk assessment. In addition to the individual Certainty Factor (CF) and Logistic Regression (LR) models, we developed an integrated CF–LR coupled model to overcome their respective limitations: the CF model’s sensitivity to specific factor attributes but neglect of factor interactions, and the LR model’s robust weight estimation but weak representation of attribute heterogeneity. By combining these strengths, the CF–LR model achieved superior predictive performance (AUC = 0.804), successfully capturing 92.5% of historical landslide events within moderate-to-high risk zones. The results show that lithology, slope angle, and proximity to rivers and roads are dominant controls on susceptibility, with landslides concentrated on soft rock slopes of 30–40° and within 600–900 m of rivers. Compared with previous coupled approaches in similar mountainous reservoir settings, our CF–LR model provides a more balanced and interpretable framework, enhancing both classification accuracy and practical applicability. These findings demonstrate that GIS-based CF–LR integration is a novel and reliable tool for landslide susceptibility mapping, offering important technical support for disaster prevention and risk management in large reservoir regions. Full article

This study proposes an integrated, data-driven framework that couples Geographic Information Systems (GIS) with machine-learning techniques to improve fire-department response efficiency in an urban setting. Using an initial archive of 10,421 geocoded fire incident reports collected in Kayseri, Turkey (2018–2023), together with an OpenStreetMap-derived road network, we first generated an “ideal route-time” feature for every incident via Dijkstra shortest-path analysis. After data cleaning and routability checks, 7421 high-quality cases formed the modelling base. Two regression models—eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and Support Vector Regression (SVR)—were trained to predict dispatch-to-arrival times. On the held-out test set, XGBoost yielded the best performance, achieving a mean absolute error of 1.67 min, a root-mean-square error of 2.21 min, a coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.46, and 78.41% accuracy within a ±3 min tolerance. Predicted times were combined with real-time Dijkstra routing to visualize fastest paths and station service areas in GIS, revealing that densely populated districts are reachable within five minutes while peripheral zones exceed ten. The results demonstrate that embedding network-derived features within advanced ML models markedly improves temporal forecasts and that the combined GIS-ML framework can support rapid, evidence-based decision-making, ultimately helping to minimize loss of life and property in urban fire emergencies. Full article

Accurate bathymetric information is crucial for coastal management, navigation, and ecosystem monitoring, yet conventional hydrographic surveys are costly and logistically demanding. This study introduces a two-stage semiempirical model for satellite-derived bathymetry (SDB) based on log-ratio reflectance indices from atmospherically corrected Landsat 8 imagery. The approach combines the optical sensitivity of the green/blue band ratio and the attenuation properties of the red/blue ratio within a parametric regression framework, enhancing both stability and interpretability. The methodology was evaluated in two contrasting coastal environments: the turbid Magdalena-Almejas Lagoon System (Mexico) and the clear-water coral reef setting of Buck Island (U.S. Virgin Islands). Results demonstrated that the proposed model outperformed traditional semiempirical approaches (Lyzenga, Stumpf, Hashim), achieving $R^2=0.8155$ (RMSE = 1.16 m) in Magdalena-Almejas and $R^2=0.9157$ (RMSE = 1.38 m) in Buck Island. Performance was statistically superior to benchmark methods according to cross-validated confidence intervals and was comparable to an artificial neural network, while avoiding overfitting in data-scarce environments. These findings highlight the model’s suitability as a transparent, cost-efficient, and scalable alternative for SDB, particularly valuable in regions where in situ data are limited. Full article

Precise kinematic positioning using low-cost android smartphones remains a significant research focus, particularly with the growing integration of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) capabilities in these devices. This research explores the accuracy of the single-frequency quad-constellation carrier-phase-based real-time kinematic (RTK) and code-only relative positioning (RP) techniques using Xiaomi 11T smartphone for transportation applications. Kinematic GNSS measurements from Xiaomi 11T are acquired using vehicle trajectory in New Aswan City, Egypt; then, the acquired data are processed utilizing various constellation combinations scenarios including GPS-only, GPS/Galileo, GPS/GLONASS, GPS/BeiDou, and GPS/Galileo/GLONASS/BeiDou. The processing outputs demonstrate that sub-meter and meter-level horizontal position accuracy is achieved for both scenarios using RTK and RP, respectively. The quad-constellation processing scenario has superiority with 0.456 m and 1.541 m root mean square error (RMSE) values in the horizontal component involving RTK and RP, respectively; on the other hand, the GPS-only solution achieved 0.766 m and 1.703 m horizontal RMSE values using RTK and RP, respectively. Based on the attained accuracy, the cost-effective Xiaomi 11T provides sufficient positioning accuracy to support transportation applications such as an intelligent transportation system, urban/public transportation monitoring, fleet management, vehicle tracking, and mobility analysis, aiding smart city planning and transportation system optimization. Full article

The objective of this study is to quantify and characterize ground deformations induced by underground coal mining in the Karaganda coal basin, Kazakhstan, in order to improve the understanding of subsidence processes and their long-term evolution. The SBAS-InSAR method was applied to Sentinel-1 (C-band) and TerraSAR-X (X-band) data from 2019–2021 to estimate the magnitude, extent, and temporal behavior of displacements over the Kostenko, Kuzembayev, Aktasskaya, and Saranskaya mines. The results reveal spatially coherent and progressive deformation, with maximum cumulative LOS displacements exceeding –800 mm in TerraSAR-X data within active longwall mining zones. Time-series analysis confirmed acceleration of displacement during active extraction and its subsequent attenuation after mining ceased. Comparative assessment demonstrated a strong agreement between Sentinel-1 and TerraSAR-X results (r = 0.9628), despite differences in resolution and acquisition geometry, highlighting the robustness of the SBAS-InSAR approach. Analysis of displacement over individual longwalls showed that several panels (3, 5, 8, 15, and 18) already exceeded their projected maximum subsidence values, underlining the necessity of continuous monitoring for ensuring safety. In contrast, other longwalls have not yet reached their maximum deformation, indicating potential for further activity. Overall, this study demonstrates the value of multi-sensor InSAR monitoring for reliable assessment of mining-induced subsidence and for supporting geotechnical risk management in post-industrial regions. Full article

The present study examines the possibilities for developing the use of small hydropower plants (SHP) in Slovakia, focusing on the principles of sustainability and compliance with European and national legislation. At present, there is a tendency for the construction of hydroelectric power plants to intervene in the river environment, with the potential to exert a substantial impact on the flow of the river and disrupt the surrounding ecosystem. A potential strategy for minimizing environmental impact would be the construction of SHPs, which require less construction work. The Hornád river sub-basin, located in eastern Slovakia, was selected as the study area. The spatial and hydrological data were processed using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools. The hydrological characteristics of the area were determined through the utilization of a digital terrain model (DMR 5.0). The results of the hydrological analyses were then combined with environmental constraints to identify suitable locations for small hydropower plants. The theoretical and technical potential and gradient were calculated for individual sections of watercourses. It is estimated that approximately 61% of watercourse sections have a gradient greater than or equal to 10 m, which represents suitable conditions for the development of small hydropower plants. The presence of a stable flow regime engenders optimal conditions for the utilization of hydropower in the designated location. The study emphasizes the importance of environmental protection of the area, the resolution of property rights issues, and the streamlining of permitting processes. The results of the study contribute to energy planning at the regional level and confirm the effectiveness of using GIS in determining locations for small hydropower plants. Concurrently, emphasis is placed on the necessity to incorporate environmental and legislative imperatives within the overarching strategy for water energy development. Full article

To achieve professional roe deer population management and to mitigate wildlife-related agricultural damage, a wildlife population estimation trial was conducted in Hungary using an ultralight aircraft with dual sensors (thermal and DSLR camera) to assess the method’s applicability, using the roe deer as a model species. The test took place in early spring, at an altitude of 400 m above ground level and a flight speed of 150 km/h. The survey targeted a total count of a 1040 hectare area using adjacent 200 m-wide strips. This strip-based design also allowed for a methodological comparison between total count and strip sample count approaches. Object-based image classification was applied, and species-level validation was performed. During the survey, a total of 213 roe deer were localised. The average group size was 9.17 ± 1.7 ($\overline{\mathrm{x}}$ ± SE), with two prominent outliers (28 and 34 individuals). Compared to the density value of 0.205 individuals/ha established through the full-area census, the simulated estimations (50% and 25%) showed considerable under- and overestimation, primarily due to the aggregative behaviour of roe deer. Based on the test, aerial population estimation using dual-sensor technology proved to be effective in agricultural habitats; however, the accuracy of the results is strongly influenced by the sampling design applied. Full article

We investigate the applicability of visual foundation models, a recent advancement in artificial intelligence, for archaeological remote sensing. In contrast to earlier approaches, we employ a strictly zero-shot methodology, testing the hypothesis that such models can perform archaeological feature detection without any fine-tuning or other adaptation for the remote sensing domain. Across five experiments using satellite imagery, aerial LiDAR, and drone video data, we assess the models’ ability to detect archaeological features. Our results demonstrate that such foundation models can achieve detection performance comparable to that of human experts and established automated methods. A key advantage lies in the substantial reduction of required human effort and the elimination of the need for training data. To support reproducibility and future experimentation, we provide open-source scripts and datasets and suggest a novel workflow for remote sensing projects. If current trends persist, foundation models may offer a scalable and accessible alternative to conventional archaeological prospection. Full article

The Rif Mountains in northern Morocco are highly exposed to geohazards, particularly earthquakes and mass movements. In this context, the Zoumi region is most affected, showing various mass movement types involving both unconsolidated and solid materials. This study evaluates the region’s susceptibility to mass movements using logistic regression (LR), applied for the first time in this area. The model incorporates eight key predisposing factors known to influence mass movement: slope gradient, slope aspect, land use, drainage density, elevation, lithology, fracturing density, and earthquake isodepths. Historical mass movements were mapped using remote sensing and field surveys, and statistical analysis calculation was conducted to analyze their spatial correlation with these environmental conditioning factors. A mass movement susceptibility (MMS) map was produced, classifying the region into four susceptibility levels, ranging from low to very high. Landslides were the most frequent movement type (36%). The LR model showed strong predictive performance, with an AUC of 88%, confirming its robustness. The final map reveals that 42% of the Zoumi area falls within the high to very high susceptibility zones. These results highlight the importance of using advanced modeling approaches to support risk mitigation and land use planning in environmentally sensitive mountain regions. Full article

Land Surface Temperature (LST) is a critical parameter for analyzing urban heat islands, surface–atmosphere interactions, and environmental management. This study enhances the temporal resolution of LST data by leveraging machine learning and deep learning models. A novel methodology was developed using Landsat 8 thermal data and Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery to predict LST at finer temporal intervals in an urban setting. Although Sentinel-2 lacks a thermal band, its high-resolution multispectral data, when integrated with Landsat 8 thermal observations, provide valuable complementary information for LST estimation. Several models were employed for LST prediction, including Random Forest Regression (RFR), Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network, and Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU). Model performance was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R²) and Mean Absolute Error (MAE). The CNN model demonstrated the highest predictive capability, achieving an R² of 74.81% and an MAE of 1.588 °C. Feature importance analysis highlighted the role of spectral bands, spectral indices, topographic parameters, and land cover data in capturing the dynamic complexity of LST variations and directional patterns. A refined CNN model, trained with the features exhibiting the highest correlation with the reference LST, achieved an improved R² of 84.48% and an MAE of 1.19 °C. These results underscore the importance of a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing LST, as well as the need to consider the specific characteristics of the study area. Additionally, a modified TsHARP approach was applied to enhance spatial resolution, though its accuracy remained lower than that of the CNN model. The study was conducted in Tehran, a rapidly urbanizing metropolis facing rising temperatures, heavy traffic congestion, rapid horizontal expansion, and low energy efficiency. The findings contribute to urban environmental management by providing high-temporal-resolution LST data, essential for mitigating urban heat islands and improving climate resilience. Full article

Landslides are a persistent and destructive hazard in Angra dos Reis, located in the highlands of Rio de Janeiro State, southeastern Brazil, where steep slopes, intense orographic rainfall, and unregulated urban expansion converge to trigger recurrent mass movements. In this study, we applied Multiscale Geographically Weighted Regression (MGWR) to examine the spatially varying relationships between landslide occurrence and topographic, hydrological, geological, and anthropogenic factors. A detailed inventory of 319 landslides was compiled using high-resolution PlanetScope imagery after the December 2023 rainfall event. Following multicollinearity testing and variable selection, thirteen predictors were retained, including slope, rainfall, lithology, NDVI, forest loss, and distance to roads. The MGWR achieved strong performance (R² = 0.94; AICc = 134.99; AUC = 0.99) and demonstrated that each factor operates at a distinct spatial scale. Slope, rainfall, and lithology exerted broad-scale controls, while road proximity had a consistent global effect. In contrast, forest loss and land use showed localized significance. These findings indicate that landslide susceptibility in Angra dos Reis is primarily driven by the interaction of orographic rainfall, steep terrain, and geological substrate, intensified by human disturbances such as road infrastructure and vegetation removal. The study underscores the need for targeted adaptation strategies, including slope stabilization, restrictions on road expansion, and vegetation conservation in steep, rainfall-prone sectors. Full article