Applied Sciences

Editorial

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8 pages, 201 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue on “Human Health Engineering”

by Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10(2), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/app10020564 - 13 Jan 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1792

Abstract

A total of 52 manuscripts were received for our Special Issue (SI), of which eight manuscripts were directly rejected without peer review [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

13 pages, 4597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control Reference Parameter for Stance Assistance Using a Passive Controlled Ankle Foot Orthosis—A Preliminary Study

by Dimas Adiputra, Mohd Azizi Abdul Rahman, Ubaidillah, Saiful Amri Mazlan, Nurhazimah Nazmi, Muhammad Kashfi Shabdin, Jun Kobayashi and Mohd Hatta Mohammed Ariff

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(20), 4416; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9204416 - 18 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2771

Abstract

This paper aims to present a preliminary study of control reference parameters for stance assistance among different subjects and walking speeds using a passive-controlled ankle foot orthosis. Four young male able-bodied subjects with varying body mass indexes (23.842 ± 4.827) walked in three [...] Read more.

This paper aims to present a preliminary study of control reference parameters for stance assistance among different subjects and walking speeds using a passive-controlled ankle foot orthosis. Four young male able-bodied subjects with varying body mass indexes (23.842 ± 4.827) walked in three walking speeds of 1, 3, and 5 km/h. Two control references, average ankle torque (aMa), and ankle angular velocity (aω), which can be implemented using a magnetorheological brake, were measured. Regression analysis was conducted to identify suitable control references in the three different phases of the stance. The results showed that aω has greater correlation (p) with body mass index and walking speed compared to aMa in the whole stance phase (p1(aω) = 0.666 > p1(aMa) = 0.560, p2(aω) = 0.837 > p2(aMa) = 0.277, and p3(aω) = 0.839 > p3(aMa) = 0.369). The estimation standard error (Se) of the aMa was found to be generally higher than of aω (Se1(aMa) = 2.251 > Se1(aω) = 0.786, Se2(aMa) = 1.236 > Se2(aω) = 0.231, Se3(aMa) = 0.696 < Se3(aω) = 0.755). Future studies should perform aω estimation based on body mass index and walking speed, as suggested by the higher correlation and lower standard error as compared to aMa. The number of subjects and walking speed scenarios should also be increased to reduce the standard error of control reference parameters estimation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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20 pages, 7538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Squat Lifting Imposes Higher Peak Joint and Muscle Loading Compared to Stoop Lifting

by Arthur van der Have, Sam Van Rossom and Ilse Jonkers

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(18), 3794; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9183794 - 10 Sep 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8170

Abstract

(1) Background: Yearly, more than 40% of the European employees suffer from work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Still, ergonomic guidelines defining optimal lifting techniques to decrease work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) has not been unambiguously defined. Therefore, this study investigates if recommended squat lifting imposes lower [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Yearly, more than 40% of the European employees suffer from work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Still, ergonomic guidelines defining optimal lifting techniques to decrease work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) has not been unambiguously defined. Therefore, this study investigates if recommended squat lifting imposes lower musculoskeletal loading than stoop lifting while using a complex full body musculoskeletal OpenSim model. (2) Methods: Ten healthy participants lifted two different weights using both lifting techniques. 3D marker trajectories and ground reaction forces were used as input to calculate joint angles, moments and power using a full body musculoskeletal model with articulated lumbar spine. In addition, the muscle activity of nine different muscles was measured to investigate muscle effort when lifting. (3) Results: Peak moments and peak joint power in L5S1 were not different between the squat and the stoop, but higher peak moments and peak power in the hip, knee, elbow and shoulder were found during squat lifting. Moment impulses in L5S1 were higher during stoop lifting. This is reflected in higher peak electromyography (EMG) but lower muscle effort in prior described muscles during the squat. (4) Conclusions: Squat lifting imposes higher peak full body musculoskeletal loading but similar low back loading compared to stoop lifting, as reflected in peak moments, peak power, and peak EMG. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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11 pages, 4833 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation Analysis of Knee Ligaments in the Landing Phase of Freestyle Skiing Aerial

by Yanming Fu, Xin Wang and Tianbiao Yu

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(18), 3713; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9183713 - 6 Sep 2019

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3439

Abstract

The risk of knee injuries in freestyle skiing athletes that perform aerials is high. The internal stresses in the knee joints of these athletes cannot easily be directly measured. In order to ascertain the mechanical response of knee joints during the landing phase, [...] Read more.

The risk of knee injuries in freestyle skiing athletes that perform aerials is high. The internal stresses in the knee joints of these athletes cannot easily be directly measured. In order to ascertain the mechanical response of knee joints during the landing phase, and to explore the mechanism of damage to the cartilage and ligaments, a finite element model of the knee joint was established. Three successful landing conditions (neutral, backward, or forward landing) from a triple kicker were analyzed. The results demonstrate that the risk of cruciate ligament damage during a neutral landing was lowest. A forward landing carried medium risk, while backward landing was of highest risk. Backward and forward landing carried risk of injury to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), respectively. The magnitude of stress on the meniscus and cartilage varied for all three landing scenarios. Stress was largest during neutral landing and least in backward landing, while forward landing resulted in a medium level of stress. The results also provide the basis for training that is scientifically robust so as to reduce the risk of injury and assist in the development of a professional knee joint protector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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18 pages, 4636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal-Performance Evaluation of Bicycle Helmets for Convective and Evaporative Heat Loss at Low and Moderate Cycling Speeds

by Shriram Mukunthan, Jochen Vleugels, Toon Huysmans, Kalev Kuklane, Tiago Sotto Mayor and Guido De Bruyne

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(18), 3672; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9183672 - 5 Sep 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3125

Abstract

The main objective of the study was to investigate the thermal performance of five (open and closed) bicycle helmets for convective and evaporative heat transfer using a nine-zone thermal manikin. The shape of the thermal manikin was obtained by averaging the 3D-point coordinates [...] Read more.

The main objective of the study was to investigate the thermal performance of five (open and closed) bicycle helmets for convective and evaporative heat transfer using a nine-zone thermal manikin. The shape of the thermal manikin was obtained by averaging the 3D-point coordinates of the head over a sample of 85 head scans of human subjects, obtained through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and 3D-printed. Experiments were carried out in two stages, (i) a convective test and (ii) an evaporative test, with ambient temperature maintained at 20.5 ± 0.5 °C and manikin skin temperature at 30.5 ± 0.5 °C for both the tests. Results showed that the evaporative heat transfer contributed up to 51%–53% of the total heat loss from the nude head. For the convective tests, the open helmet A1 having the highest number of vents among tested helmets showed the highest cooling efficiency at 3 m/s (100.9%) and at 6 m/s (101.6%) and the closed helmet (A2) with fewer inlets and outlets and limited internal channels showed the lowest cooling efficiency at 3 m/s (75.6%) and at 6 m/s (84.4%). For the evaporative tests, the open helmet A1 showed the highest cooling efficiency at 3 m/s (97.8%), the open helmet A4 showed the highest cooling efficiency at 6 m/s (96.7%) and the closed helmet A2 showed the lowest cooling efficiency at 3 m/s (79.8%) and at 6 m/s (89.9%). Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed that the zonal heat-flux values for the two tested velocities were significantly different (p < 0.05) for both the modes of heat transfer. For the convective tests, at 3 m/s, the frontal zone (256–283 W/m²) recorded the highest heat flux for open helmets, the facial zone (210–212 W/m²) recorded the highest heat flux for closed helmets and the parietal zone (54–123 W/m²) recorded the lowest heat flux values for all helmets. At 6 m/s, the frontal zone (233–310 W/m²) recorded the highest heat flux for open helmets and the closed helmet H1, the facial zone (266 W/m²) recorded the highest heat flux for the closed helmet A2 and the parietal zone (65–123 W/m²) recorded the lowest heat flux for all the helmets. For evaporative tests, at 3 m/s, the frontal zone (547–615 W/m²) recorded the highest heat flux for all open helmets and the closed helmet H1, the facial zone (469 W/m²) recorded the highest heat flux for the closed helmet A2 and the parietal zone (61–204 W/m²) recorded the lowest heat flux for all helmets. At 6 m/s, the frontal zone (564–621 W/m²) recorded highest heat flux for all the helmets and the parietal zone (97–260 W/m²) recorded the lowest heat flux for all helmets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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13 pages, 1246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improvement of the Cardiac Oscillator Based Model for the Simulation of Bundle Branch Blocks

by Gian Carlo Cardarilli, Luca Di Nunzio, Rocco Fazzolari, Marco Re and Francesca Silvestri

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(18), 3653; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9183653 - 4 Sep 2019

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4416

Abstract

In this paper, we propose an improvement of the cardiac conduction system based on three modified Van der Pol oscillators. Each oscillator represents one of the components of the heart conduction system: Sino-Atrial node (SA), Atrio-Ventricular node (AV) and [...] Read more.

In this paper, we propose an improvement of the cardiac conduction system based on three modified Van der Pol oscillators. Each oscillator represents one of the components of the heart conduction system: Sino-Atrial node (SA), Atrio-Ventricular node (AV) and His–Purkinje system (HP). However, while SA and AV nodes can be modelled through a single oscillator, the modelling of HP by using a single oscillator is a rough simplification of the cardiac behaviour. In fact, the HP bundle is composed of Right (RB) and Left Bundle (LB) branches that serve, respectively, the right and left ventricles. In order to describe the behaviour of each bundle branch, we build a phenomenological model based on four oscillators: SA, AV, RB and LB. For the characterization of the atrial and ventricular muscles, we used the modified FitzHugh–Nagumo (FHN) equations. The numerical simulation of the model has been implemented in Simulink. The simulation results show that the new model is able to reproduce the heart dynamics generating, besides the physiological signal, also the pathological rhythm in case of Right Bundle Branch Block (RBBB) and Left Bundle Branch Block (LBBB). In particular, our model is able to describe the communication interruption of the conduction system, when one of the HP bundle branches is damaged. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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14 pages, 1164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feature Extraction and Evaluation for Driver Drowsiness Detection Based on Thermoregulation

by Jasper Gielen and Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(17), 3555; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9173555 - 30 Aug 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4063

Abstract

Numerous reports state that drowsiness is one of the major factors affecting driving performance and resulting in traffic accidents. In the past, methods to detect driver drowsiness have been developed based on physiological, behavioral, and vehicular features. In this pilot study, we test [...] Read more.

Numerous reports state that drowsiness is one of the major factors affecting driving performance and resulting in traffic accidents. In the past, methods to detect driver drowsiness have been developed based on physiological, behavioral, and vehicular features. In this pilot study, we test the use of a new set of features for detecting driver drowsiness based on physiological changes related to thermoregulation. Nineteen participants successfully performed a driving simulation, while the temperature of the nose (T_nose) and wrist (T_wrist) as well as the heart rate (HR) were monitored. On average, an initial increase in temperature followed by a gradual decrease was observed in drivers who experienced drowsiness. For non-drowsy drivers, no such trends were observed. In addition, HR decreased on average in both groups, yet the decrease in the drowsy group was more distinct. Next, a classification based on each of these variables resulted in an accuracy of 68.4%, 88.9%, and 70.6% for T_nose, T_wrist, and HR, respectively. Combining the information of all variables resulted in an accuracy of 89.5%, meaning that ultimately the state of 17 out of 19 drivers was detected correctly. Hence, we conclude that the use of physiological features related to thermoregulation shows potential for future research in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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17 pages, 1514 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feature Engineering for ICU Mortality Prediction Based on Hourly to Bi-Hourly Measurements

by Ahmed Y. A. Amer, Julie Vranken, Femke Wouters, Dieter Mesotten, Pieter Vandervoort, Valerie Storms, Stijn Luca, Bart Vanrumste and Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(17), 3525; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9173525 - 27 Aug 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3958

Abstract

Mortality prediction for intensive care unit (ICU) patients is a challenging problem that requires extracting discriminative and informative features. This study presents a proof of concept for exploring features that can provide clinical insight. Through a feature engineering approach, it is attempted to [...] Read more.

Mortality prediction for intensive care unit (ICU) patients is a challenging problem that requires extracting discriminative and informative features. This study presents a proof of concept for exploring features that can provide clinical insight. Through a feature engineering approach, it is attempted to improve ICU mortality prediction in field conditions with low frequently measured data (i.e., hourly to bi-hourly). Features are explored by investigating the vital signs measurements of ICU patients, labelled with mortality or survival at discharge. The vital signs of interest in this study are heart and respiration rate, oxygen saturation and blood pressure. The latter comprises systolic, diastolic and mean arterial pressure. In the feature exploration process, it is aimed to extract simple and interpretable features that can provide clinical insight. For this purpose, a classifier is required that maximises the margin between the two classes (i.e., survival and mortality) with minimum tolerance to misclassification errors. Moreover, it preferably has to provide a linear decision surface in the original feature space without mapping to an unlimited dimensionality feature space. Therefore, a linear hard margin support vector machine (SVM) classifier is suggested. The extracted features are grouped in three categories: statistical, dynamic and physiological. Each category plays an important role in enhancing classification error performance. After extracting several features within the three categories, a manual feature fine-tuning is applied to consider only the most efficient features. The final classification, considering mortality as the positive class, resulted in an accuracy of

91.56 %

, sensitivity of

90.59 %

, precision of

86.52 %

and F $_{1}$ -score of

88.50 %

. The obtained results show that the proposed feature engineering approach and the extracted features are valid to be considered and further enhanced for the mortality prediction purpose. Moreover, the proposed feature engineering approach moved the modelling methodology from black-box modelling to grey-box modelling in combination with the powerful classifier of SVMs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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14 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of the Dyskinesia Impairment Mobility Scale to Measure Presence and Severity of Dystonia and Choreoathetosis during Powered Mobility in Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy

by Saranda Bekteshi, Marco Konings, Ioana Gabriela Nica, Sotirios Gakopoulos, Inti Vanmechelen, Jean-Marie Aerts, Hans Hallez and Elegast Monbaliu

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(17), 3481; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9173481 - 23 Aug 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3794

Abstract

The majority of individuals with dyskinetic cerebral palsy cannot use powered mobility with a joystick, due to the lack of manual abilities by the severe presence of dystonia and choreoathetosis. Reliable measurements of these movement disorders is indispensable for good evaluation towards evidence–based [...] Read more.

The majority of individuals with dyskinetic cerebral palsy cannot use powered mobility with a joystick, due to the lack of manual abilities by the severe presence of dystonia and choreoathetosis. Reliable measurements of these movement disorders is indispensable for good evaluation towards evidence–based insights during powered mobility. This study aimed to develop and assess the Dyskinesia Impairment Mobility Scale (DIMS), a video–based tool to measure presence and severity of dystonia and choreoathetosis during powered mobility. DIMS was measured for the neck and arms region during five mobility tasks. Interrater reliability, test–retest reliability, internal consistency and concurrent validity of the DIMS were assessed. Interrater reliability coefficients ranged between 0.68 and 0.87 for the total DIMS, and the dystonia and choreoathetosis subscales. Test–retest reliability was moderate to excellent (range 0.51–0.93) while Cronbach’s alpha was good (range 0.69–0.81) for the total scale and subscale scores. Concurrent validity showed during mobility tasks significant correlations with rest postures in the arm region, and with requested but voluntary activity in the neck region. The DIMS reliably measures the presence and severity of the movement disorders during powered mobility, increasing insights into the underlying mechanisms of independent mobility. This scale may therefore be a promising tool to evaluate mobility training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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19 pages, 4896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reverse Engineering of Thermoregulatory Cold-Induced Vasoconstriction/Vasodilation during Localized Cooling

by Ali Youssef, Anne Verachtert, Guido De Bruyne and Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(16), 3372; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163372 - 16 Aug 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6447

Abstract

Biological systems, in general, represent a special type of control system. The physiological processes of homeostasis, which serve to maintain the organism’s internal equilibrium against external influences, are clear forms of biological control system. An example of the homeostasis is the control of [...] Read more.

Biological systems, in general, represent a special type of control system. The physiological processes of homeostasis, which serve to maintain the organism’s internal equilibrium against external influences, are clear forms of biological control system. An example of the homeostasis is the control of the organism thermal state or the thermoregulation. The thermoregulatory control of human skin blood flow, via vasoconstriction and vasodilation, is vital to maintaining normal body temperatures during challenges to thermal homeostasis such as localised cooling. The main objective of this paper is to reverse engineer the localised thermoregulatory cold-induced vasoconstriction/vasodilation (CIVC/CIVD) reactions using a data-based mechanistic approach. Two types of localised cooling were applied to the fingers of 33 healthy participants, namely, continuous and intermittent cooling. Modelling of the thermoregulatory cold-induced vasoconstriction/vasodilation reactions suggested two underlying processes, with one process being 10 times faster. A new term is suggested in this paper, namely, the latent heat of CIVD, which represents the amount of dissipated heat required to trigger the CIVD. Moreover, a new model for the thermoregulatory localised CIVC/CIVD reactions is proposed. The suggested new model states that, with an initial vasodilation state, the initial localised CIVC is triggered based on a certain threshold in the rate of heat dissipation from the skin to the surrounding environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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20 pages, 4107 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Online Personalized-Monitoring of Human Thermal Sensation Using Machine Learning Approach

by Ali Youssef, Ahmed Youssef Ali Amer, Nicolás Caballero and Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(16), 3303; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163303 - 12 Aug 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5098

Abstract

Thermal comfort and sensation are important aspects of building design and indoor climate control, as modern man spends most of the day indoors. Conventional indoor climate design and control approaches are based on static thermal comfort/sensation models that view the building occupants as [...] Read more.

Thermal comfort and sensation are important aspects of building design and indoor climate control, as modern man spends most of the day indoors. Conventional indoor climate design and control approaches are based on static thermal comfort/sensation models that view the building occupants as passive recipients of their thermal environment. To overcome the disadvantages of static models, adaptive thermal comfort models aim to provide opportunity for personalized climate control and thermal comfort enhancement. Recent advances in wearable technologies contributed to new possibilities in controlling and monitoring health conditions and human wellbeing in daily life. The generated streaming data generated from wearable sensors are providing a unique opportunity to develop a real-time monitor of an individual’s thermal state. The main goal of this work is to introduce a personalized adaptive model to predict individual’s thermal sensation based on non-intrusive and easily measured variables, which could be obtained from already available wearable sensors. In this paper, a personalized classification model for individual thermal sensation with a reduced-dimension input-space, including 12 features extracted from easily measured variables, which are obtained from wearable sensors, was developed using least-squares support vector machine algorithm. The developed classification model predicted the individual’s thermal sensation with an overall average accuracy of 86%. Additionally, we introduced the main framework of streaming algorithm for personalized classification model to predict an individual’s thermal sensation based on streaming data obtained from wearable sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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20 pages, 5515 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards Model-Based Online Monitoring of Cyclist’s Head Thermal Comfort: Smart Helmet Concept and Prototype

by Ali Youssef, Jeroen Colon, Konstantinos Mantzios, Paraskevi Gkiata, Tiago S. Mayor, Andreas D. Flouris, Guido De Bruyne and Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(15), 3170; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9153170 - 4 Aug 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5602

Abstract

Bicyclists can be subjected to crashes, which can cause injuries over the whole body, especially the head. Head injuries can be prevented by wearing bicycle helmets; however, bicycle helmets are frequently not worn due to a variety of reasons. One of the most [...] Read more.

Bicyclists can be subjected to crashes, which can cause injuries over the whole body, especially the head. Head injuries can be prevented by wearing bicycle helmets; however, bicycle helmets are frequently not worn due to a variety of reasons. One of the most common complaints about wearing bicycle helmets relates to thermal discomfort. So far, insufficient attention has been given to the thermal performance of helmets. This paper aimed to introduce and develop an adaptive model for the online monitoring of head thermal comfort based on easily measured variables, which can be measured continuously using impeded sensors in the helmet. During the course of this work, 22 participants in total were subjected to different levels of environmental conditions (air temperature, air velocity, mechanical work and helmet thermal resistance) to develop a general model to predict head thermal comfort. A reduced-order general linear regression model with three input variables, namely, temperature difference between ambient temperature and average under-helmet temperature, cyclist’s heart rate and the interaction between ambient temperature and helmet thermal resistance, was the most suitable to predict the cyclist’s head thermal comfort and showed maximum mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of 8.4%. Based on the selected model variables, a smart helmet prototype (SmartHelmet) was developed using impeded sensing technology, which was used to validate the developed general model. Finally, we introduced a framework of calculation for an adaptive personalised model to predict head thermal comfort based on streaming data from the SmartHelmet prototype. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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13 pages, 2000 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating Airway Resistance from Forced Expiration in Spirometry

by Nilakash Das, Kenneth Verstraete, Marko Topalovic, Jean-Marie Aerts and Wim Janssens

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(14), 2842; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9142842 - 16 Jul 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4232

Abstract

Spirometry is the gold standard to detect airflow limitation, but it does not measure airway resistance, which is one of the physiological factors behind airflow limitation. In this study, we describe the dynamics of forced expiration in spirometry using a deflating balloon and [...] Read more.

Spirometry is the gold standard to detect airflow limitation, but it does not measure airway resistance, which is one of the physiological factors behind airflow limitation. In this study, we describe the dynamics of forced expiration in spirometry using a deflating balloon and using this model. We propose a methodology to estimate ζ (zeta), a dimensionless and effort-independent parameter quantifying airway resistance. In N = 462 (65 ± 8 years), we showed that ζ is significantly (p < 0.0001) greater in COPD (2.59 ± 0.99) than healthy smokers (1.64 ± 0.18), it increased significantly (p < 0.0001) with the severity of airflow limitation and it correlated significantly (p < 0.0001) with airway resistance (r = 0.55) and specific conductance (r = −0.60) obtained from body-plethysmography. ζ also showed significant associations (p < 0.001) with diffusion capacity (r = −0.64), air-trapping (r = 0.68), and CT densitometry of emphysema (r = 0.40 against % below −950 HU and r = −0.34 against 15th percentile HU). Moreover, simulation studies demonstrated that an increase in ζ resulted in lower airflows from baseline. Therefore, we conclude that ζ quantifies airway resistance from forced expiration in spirometry—a method that is more abundantly available in primary care than traditional but expensive methods of measuring airway resistance such as body-plethysmography and forced oscillation technique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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24 pages, 2542 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Real-Time Model Predictive Control of Human Bodyweight Based on Energy Intake

by Alberto Peña Fernández, Ali Youssef, Charlotte Heeren, Christophe Matthys and Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(13), 2609; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9132609 - 27 Jun 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4121

Abstract

The number of overweight people reached 1.9 billion in 2016. Lifespan decrease and many diseases have been linked to obesity. Efficient ways to monitor and control body weight are needed. The objective of this work is to explore the use of a model [...] Read more.

The number of overweight people reached 1.9 billion in 2016. Lifespan decrease and many diseases have been linked to obesity. Efficient ways to monitor and control body weight are needed. The objective of this work is to explore the use of a model predictive control approach to manage bodyweight in response to energy intake. The analysis is performed based on data obtained during the Minnesota starvation experiment, with weekly measurements on body weight and energy intake for 32 male participants over the course of 27 weeks. A first order dynamic auto-regression with exogenous variables model exhibits the best prediction, with an average mean relative prediction error value of 1.01 ± 0.02% for 1 week-ahead predictions. Then, the performance of a model predictive control algorithm, following a predefined bodyweight trajectory, is tested. Root mean square errors of 0.30 ± 0.06 kg and 9 ± 3 kcal day⁻¹ are found between the desired target and simulated bodyweights, and between the measured energy intake and advised by the controller energy intake, respectively. The model predictive control approach for bodyweight allows calculating the needed energy intake in order to follow a predefined target bodyweight reference trajectory. This study shows a first possible step towards real-time active control of human bodyweight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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17 pages, 6851 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Discrete-Time Fractional Order Integral Sliding Mode Control of an Antagonistic Actuator Driven by Pneumatic Artificial Muscles

by Quy-Thinh Dao, Manh-Linh Nguyen and Shin-ichiroh Yamamoto

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(12), 2503; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9122503 - 19 Jun 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4437

Abstract

Recently, pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs), a lightweight and high-compliant actuator, have been increasingly used in assistive rehabilitation robots. PAM-based applications must overcome two inherent drawbacks. The first is the nonlinearity due to the compressibility of the air, and the second is the hysteresis [...] Read more.

Recently, pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs), a lightweight and high-compliant actuator, have been increasingly used in assistive rehabilitation robots. PAM-based applications must overcome two inherent drawbacks. The first is the nonlinearity due to the compressibility of the air, and the second is the hysteresis due to its geometric construction. Because of these drawbacks, it is difficult to construct not only an accurate mathematical model but also a high-performance control scheme. In this paper, the discrete-time fractional order integral sliding mode control approach is investigated to deal with the drawbacks of PAMs. First, a discrete-time second order plus dead time mathematical model is chosen to approximate the characteristics of PAMs in the antagonistic configuration. Then, the fractional order integral sliding mode control approach is employed together with a disturbance observer to improve the trajectory tracking performance. The effectiveness of the proposed control method is verified in multi-scenario experiments using a physical actuator. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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16 pages, 7178 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Motorized Orthosis Control

by Iñigo Aramendia, Ekaitz Zulueta, Daniel Teso-Fz-Betoño, Aitor Saenz-Aguirre and Unai Fernandez-Gamiz

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(12), 2453; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9122453 - 15 Jun 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3172

Abstract

Orthotic devices are defined as externally applied devices that are used to modify the structural and functional characteristics of the neuro-muscular and skeletal systems. The aim of the current study is to improve the control and movement of a robotic arm orthosis by [...] Read more.

Orthotic devices are defined as externally applied devices that are used to modify the structural and functional characteristics of the neuro-muscular and skeletal systems. The aim of the current study is to improve the control and movement of a robotic arm orthosis by means of an intelligent optimization system. Firstly, the control problem settlement is defined with the muscle, brain, and arm model. Subsequently, the optimization control, which based on a differential evolution algorithm, is developed to calculate the optimum gain values. Additionally, a cost function is defined in order to control and minimize the effort that is made by the subject and to assure that the algorithm follows as close as possible the defined setpoint value. The results show that, with the optimization algorithm, the necessary development force of the muscles is close to zero and the neural excitation level of biceps and triceps signal values are getting lower with a gain increase. Furthermore, the necessary development force of the biceps muscle to overcome a load added to the orthosis control system is practically the half of the one that is necessary without the optimization algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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19 pages, 2832 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Novel Design and Lateral Stability Tracking Control of a Four-Wheeled Rollator

by Xin Zhang, Jiehao Li, Zhenhuan Hu, Wen Qi, Longbin Zhang, Yingbai Hu, Hang Su, Giancarlo Ferrigno and Elena De Momi

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(11), 2327; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112327 - 6 Jun 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 4050

Abstract

Design and control of smart rollators have attracted increasing research interests in the past decades. To meet the requirements of the elderly or disabled users, this paper proposes a novel design and tracking control scheme for empowering and assisting natural human mobility with [...] Read more.

Design and control of smart rollators have attracted increasing research interests in the past decades. To meet the requirements of the elderly or disabled users, this paper proposes a novel design and tracking control scheme for empowering and assisting natural human mobility with a four-wheeled rollator. Firstly, by integrating the advantages of Kano Model Analysis and the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ), we introduce a novel Kano-TRIZ industrial design method to design and optimize its mechanical structure. The demand and quality characteristics of the clinical rollator are analyzed according to the Kano model. The Quality Function Deployment (QFD) and TRIZ are adopted to integrate industrial product innovations and optimize the function configuration. Furthermore, a lateral stability controller based on Model Predictive Control (MPC) scheme is introduced to achieve good tracking control performance with the lateral deviation and the heading angle deviation. Finally, the feasibility of the design and control method is verified with a simulation study. The simulation results indicate that the proposed algorithm keeps the lateral position error in a reasonable range. In the co-simulation of ADAMS-MATLAB, the trajectory of the rollator is smooth with constrained position error within 0.1 m, the turning angle and speed can achieve stable tracking control within 5 s and the heading angle is accurate and the speed is stable. A compared experiment with MPC and SMC show that MPC controller has faster response, higher tracking accuracy and smoother trajectory on the novel designed rollator. With the increasing demand for rollators in the global market, the methodology proposed in this paper will attract more research and industry interests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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16 pages, 3907 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Photoplethysmography-Based Continuous Systolic Blood Pressure Estimation Method for Low Processing Power Wearable Devices

by Rolandas Gircys, Agnius Liutkevicius, Egidijus Kazanavicius, Vita Lesauskaite, Gyte Damuleviciene and Audrone Janaviciute

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(11), 2236; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9112236 - 30 May 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4041

Abstract

Regardless of age, it is always important to detect deviations in long-term blood pressure from normal levels. Continuous monitoring of blood pressure throughout the day is even more important for elderly people with cardiovascular diseases or a high risk of stroke. The traditional [...] Read more.

Regardless of age, it is always important to detect deviations in long-term blood pressure from normal levels. Continuous monitoring of blood pressure throughout the day is even more important for elderly people with cardiovascular diseases or a high risk of stroke. The traditional cuff-based method for blood pressure measurements is not suitable for continuous real-time applications and is very uncomfortable. To address this problem, continuous blood pressure measurement methods based on photoplethysmogram (PPG) have been developed. However, these methods use specialized high-performance hardware and sensors, which are not available for common users. This paper proposes the continuous systolic blood pressure (SBP) estimation method based on PPG pulse wave steepness for low processing power wearable devices and evaluates its suitability using the commercially available CMS50FW Pulse Oximeter. The SBP estimation is done based on the PPG pulse wave steepness (rising edge angle) because it is highly correlated with systolic blood pressure. The SBP estimation based on this single feature allows us to significantly reduce the amount of data processed and avoid errors, due to PPG pulse wave amplitude changes resulting from physiological or external factors. The experimental evaluation shows that the proposed SBP estimation method allows the use of off-the-shelf wearable PPG measurement devices with a low sampling rate (up to 60 Hz) and low resolution (up to 8-bit) for precise SBP measurements (mean difference MD = −0.043 and standard deviation SD = 6.79). In contrast, the known methods for continuous SBP estimation are based on equipment with a much higher sampling rate and better resolution characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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13 pages, 726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Effects of a Soft Robotic Suit on Gait Characteristics in Healthy Elderly Persons

by Shanhai Jin, Xiaogang Xiong, Dejin Zhao, Changfu Jin and Motoji Yamamoto

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(9), 1957; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9091957 - 13 May 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4242

Abstract

As a walking assistive device for elderly persons, one of the major aims should be to improve and rehabilitate gait characteristics after long-term repeated use of the device. However, most of the existing research on walking assistive devices only emphasize their immediate effects, [...] Read more.

As a walking assistive device for elderly persons, one of the major aims should be to improve and rehabilitate gait characteristics after long-term repeated use of the device. However, most of the existing research on walking assistive devices only emphasize their immediate effects, and there is limited research indicating the long-term effects. To address this gap, this paper experimentally validates the effects of our soft wearable robotic suit on gait characteristics of elderly persons after repeated use of the device for six weeks. Experimental results on four elderly subjects (age = 74.8 ± 5.0 year) show that, after six weeks of gait rehabilitation training by the robotic suit, the gait characteristics of the subjects were improved, leading to an increased walk ratio with an average of 9.8% compared with the initial state. The results of this research will benefit the potential use of the robotic suit in gait training and rehabilitation for elderly persons and also will be useful to the establishment of practical guidelines that maximize the training and rehabilitation effectiveness of the robotic suit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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13 pages, 1703 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Box-Jenkins Transfer Function Modelling for Reliable Determination of VO₂ Kinetics in Patients with COPD

by Joren Buekers, Jan Theunis, Alberto Peña Fernández, Emiel F. M. Wouters, Martijn A. Spruit, Patrick De Boever and Jean-Marie Aerts

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(9), 1822; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9091822 - 1 May 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3635

Abstract

Oxygen uptake (VO₂) kinetics provide information about the ability to respond to the increased physical load during a constant work rate test (CWRT). Box-Jenkins transfer function (BJ-TF) models can extract kinetic features from the phase II VO₂ response during a [...] Read more.

Oxygen uptake (VO₂) kinetics provide information about the ability to respond to the increased physical load during a constant work rate test (CWRT). Box-Jenkins transfer function (BJ-TF) models can extract kinetic features from the phase II VO₂ response during a CWRT, without being affected by unwanted noise contributions (e.g., phase I contribution or measurement noise). CWRT data of 18 COPD patients were used to compare model fits and kinetic feature values between BJ-TF models and three typically applied exponential modelling methods. Autocorrelation tests and normalised root-mean-squared error values (BJ-TF: 2.8 ± 1.3%; exponential methods A, B and C: 10.5 ± 5.8%, 11.3 ± 5.2% and 12.1 ± 7.0%; p < 0.05) showed that BJ-TF models, in contrast to exponential models, could account for the most important noise contributions. This led to more reliable kinetic feature values compared to methods A and B (e.g., mean response time (MRT), BJ-TF: 74 ± 20 s; methods A-B: 100 ± 56 s–88 ± 52 s; p < 0.05). Only exponential modelling method C provided kinetic feature values comparable to BJ-TF features values (e.g., MRT: 75 ± 20 s). Based on theoretical considerations, we recommend using BJ-TF models, rather than exponential models, for reliable determinations of VO₂ kinetics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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17 pages, 1697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Symptomatic Factors of Nomophobia in Peruvian Students from the National University of Engineering

by Jimmy Aurelio Rosales-Huamani, Rita Rocio Guzman-Lopez, Eder Eliseo Aroni-Vilca, Carmen Rosalia Matos-Avalos and Jose Luis Castillo-Sequera

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(9), 1814; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9091814 - 1 May 2019

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8352

Abstract

The use of cell phones has increased worldwide in the past few decades, particularly in children and adolescents. Using these electronic devices provides personal benefits. Communicating through cell phones was a very important factor in the socioeconomic progress of developed countries. However, it [...] Read more.

The use of cell phones has increased worldwide in the past few decades, particularly in children and adolescents. Using these electronic devices provides personal benefits. Communicating through cell phones was a very important factor in the socioeconomic progress of developed countries. However, it is beyond doubt that its indiscriminate use can bring up certain psychiatric disorders or cause some disorder in a person, within the phobic group of anxiety disorders called nomophobia; basically associated with anxiety, nervousness, discomfort, and distress when contact with the smartphone is lost, mainly in the youngest users. This research proposal aims to identify symptoms that have not yet been detected by unceasing cell phone use, considering that in Peru there are few studies of human health engineering and the physical mental health. For that reason, we sought to identify the symptomatic factors of nomophobia presented by students at the National University of Engineering and its interference with their academic life. To accomplish this study, we designed a questionnaire according to our reality with the use of focus groups techniques when the test was taken in class. Three symptomatic factors of nomophobia were identified: feelings of anxiety, compulsive smartphone use, and feelings of anxiety and panic. The study included a representative sample of 461 students in different years of study engineering (21% women, 79% men, over 17 years of age). Finally, given the widespread adoption of smartphones and their integration into educational environments, the results of this study can help educators understand students’ inclination to use their smartphones at all times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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13 pages, 1285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

PANDAS: Paediatric Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Application Software

by Hervé Mukenya Mwamba, Pieter Rousseau Fourie and Dawie van den Heever

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(8), 1645; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9081645 - 20 Apr 2019

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4187

Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neuropsychiatric disorder that impairs social, academic and occupational functioning in children, adolescents and adults. In South Africa, youth prevalence of ADHD is estimated as 10%. It is therefore necessary to further investigate methods that objectively diagnose, treat [...] Read more.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neuropsychiatric disorder that impairs social, academic and occupational functioning in children, adolescents and adults. In South Africa, youth prevalence of ADHD is estimated as 10%. It is therefore necessary to further investigate methods that objectively diagnose, treat and manage the disorder. The aim of the study was to develop a novel method that could be used as an aid to provide screening for ADHD. The study comprised of a beta-testing phase that included 30 children (19 non-ADHD and 11 ADHD) between the ages of 5 and 16 years old. The strategy was to use a tablet-based game that gathered real-time user data during game-play. This data was then used to train a linear binary support vector machine (SVM). The objective of the SVM was to differentiate between an ADHD individual versus a non-ADHD individual. A feature set was extracted from the gathered data and sequential forward selection (SFS) was performed to select the most significant features. The test set accuracy of 85.7% and leave-one-out cross-validation (LOOCV) accuracy of 83.5% were achieved. Overall, the classification accuracy of the trained SVM was 86.5%. Finally, the sensitivity of the model was 75% and this was seen as a moderate result. Since the sample size was fairly small, the results of the classifier were only seen as suggestive rather than conclusive. Therefore, the performance of the classifier was indicative that a quantitative tool could indeed be developed to perform screening for ADHD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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20 pages, 3958 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Older Adults’ Usability and Emotional Reactions toward Text, Diagram, Image, and Animation Interfaces for Displaying Health Information

by Yu-Min Fang, Lin Chun and Bo-Cheng Chu

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(6), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9061058 - 13 Mar 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3669

Abstract

Technology can facilitate the provision of healthcare to older adults. Wearable devices are thus increasingly prevalent amidst perpetual component miniaturization and cost reduction. This study aimed to determine whether existing application (app) interfaces are suitable for older adults by comparing the perceived usability [...] Read more.

Technology can facilitate the provision of healthcare to older adults. Wearable devices are thus increasingly prevalent amidst perpetual component miniaturization and cost reduction. This study aimed to determine whether existing application (app) interfaces are suitable for older adults by comparing the perceived usability and emotional reactions of younger users and older users to the health information display formats of wearable interfaces. Based on the outcomes of a literature review and expert recommendations, four health display interfaces—text, diagram, image, and animation—were developed and revised. Thirty respondents in Miaoli, Taiwan, were invited to participate in a questionnaire and interviews. The collected data were analyzed and discussed to develop design recommendations. The findings of this study were as follows: (1) the diagram interface had the lowest performance; (2) the respondents preferred the animation interface, which produced strong affective valence, thereby suggesting that animation generated positive emotions, yielding a result consistent with expert views and existing design principles; and (3) older users were more accepting of the text interface than the younger users, who exhibited negative emotions toward the text interface, highlighting a significant generation gap. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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12 pages, 3240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of In-Shoe Foot Orthosis Contours on Heel Pain Due to Calcaneal Spurs

by Dwi Basuki Wibowo, Achmad Widodo, Gunawan Dwi Haryadi, Wahyu Caesarendra and Rudiansyah Harahap

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(3), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9030495 - 31 Jan 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5352

Abstract

The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of contouring the shoe insole on calcaneal pressure and heel pain in calcaneal spur patients. Calcaneal pressure was measured using three force sensors from 13 patients including three males and 10 females. These [...] Read more.

The objective of this study is to investigate the effect of contouring the shoe insole on calcaneal pressure and heel pain in calcaneal spur patients. Calcaneal pressure was measured using three force sensors from 13 patients including three males and 10 females. These patients have plantar heel pain due to calcaneal spurs, and we examined five customized contour insole foot areas (0–100%). Sensors were attached at the central heel (CH), lateral heel (LH) and medial heel (MH) of the foot. The pain was measured using an algometer and evaluated by the pain minimum compressive pressure (PMCP). In this study, it was observed that the calcaneal pressure decreased with increasing insole foot area. In addition, increasing the insole foot area from 25% to 50% can reduce the calcaneal pressure approximately 17.4% at the LH and 30.9% at the MH, which are smaller than the PMCP, while at the MH, pressure reduced 6.9%, which is greater than the PMCP. Therefore, to reduce pain, one can use 50% insole foot area, even though at MH it is still 19.3% greater than the PMCP. Excellent pain relief was observed when using 100% insole foot area, as the pressures in those three areas are lower than the PMCPs, but it is not recommended because it requires large production costs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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13 pages, 17917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of the Phantom Shape on the Gradient Artefact of Electroencephalography (EEG) Data in Simultaneous EEG–fMRI

by Muhammad E. H. Chowdhury, Amith Khandakar, Belayat Hossain and Khawla Alzoubi

Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(10), 1969; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8101969 - 18 Oct 2018

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3334

Abstract

Electroencephalography (EEG) signals greatly suffer from gradient artefacts (GAs) due to the time-varying field gradients in the magnetic resonance (MR) scanner during the simultaneous acquisition of EEG and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. The GAs are the principal contributors of artefacts while [...] Read more.

Electroencephalography (EEG) signals greatly suffer from gradient artefacts (GAs) due to the time-varying field gradients in the magnetic resonance (MR) scanner during the simultaneous acquisition of EEG and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data. The GAs are the principal contributors of artefacts while recording EEG inside an MR scanner, and most of them come from the interaction of the EEG cap and the subject’s head. Many researchers have been using a spherical phantom to characterize the GA in EEG data in combined EEG–fMRI studies. In this study, we investigated how the phantom shape could affect the characterization of the GA. EEG data were recorded with a spherical phantom, a head-shaped phantom, and six human subjects, individually, during the execution of customized and standard echo-planar imaging (EPI) sequences. The spatial potential maps of the root-mean-square (RMS) voltage of the GA over EEG channels for the trials with a head-shaped phantom closely mimicked those related to the human head rather than those obtained for the spherical phantom. This was confirmed by measuring the average similarity index (0.85/0.68). Moreover, a paired t-test showed that the head-shaped phantom’s and the spherical phantom’s data were significantly different (p < 0.005) from the subjects’ data, whereas the difference between the head-shaped phantom’s and the spherical phantom’s data was not significant (p = 0.07). The results of this study strongly suggest that a head-shaped phantom should be used for GA characterization studies in concurrent EEG–fMRI. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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Review

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12 pages, 238 KiB

Open AccessReview

Overview of Federated Facility to Harmonize, Analyze and Management of Missing Data in Cohorts

by Hema Sekhar Reddy Rajula, Veronika Odintsova, Mirko Manchia and Vassilios Fanos

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(19), 4103; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9194103 - 1 Oct 2019

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3140

Abstract

Cohorts are instrumental for epidemiologically oriented observational studies. Cohort studies usually observe large groups of individuals for a specific period of time to identify the contributing factors to a specific outcome (for instance an illness) and create associations between risk factors and the [...] Read more.

Cohorts are instrumental for epidemiologically oriented observational studies. Cohort studies usually observe large groups of individuals for a specific period of time to identify the contributing factors to a specific outcome (for instance an illness) and create associations between risk factors and the outcome under study. In collaborative projects, federated data facilities are meta-database systems that are distributed across multiple locations that permit to analyze, combine, or harmonize data from different sources making them suitable for mega- and meta-analyses. The harmonization of data can increase the statistical power of studies through maximization of sample size, allowing for additional refined statistical analyses, which ultimately lead to answer research questions that could not be addressed while using a single study. Indeed, harmonized data can be analyzed through mega-analysis of raw data or fixed effects meta-analysis. Other types of data might be analyzed by e.g., random-effects meta-analyses or Bayesian evidence synthesis. In this article, we describe some methodological aspects related to the construction of a federated facility to optimize analyses of multiple datasets, the impact of missing data, and some methods for handling missing data in cohort studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Health Engineering)

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