Batteries

Editorial

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2 pages, 175 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging

by Pascal Venet and Eduardo Redondo-Iglesias

Batteries 2020, 6(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010018 - 12 Mar 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4513

Abstract

Electrochemical energy storage is a key element of systems in a wide range of sectors, such as electro-mobility, portable devices, or renewable energy [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

Research

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13 pages, 4589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State-of-Charge Monitoring and Battery Diagnosis of NiCd Cells Using Impedance Spectroscopy

by Peter Kurzweil and Wolfgang Scheuerpflug

Batteries 2020, 6(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010004 - 9 Jan 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 11449

Abstract

With respect to aeronautical applications, the state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) of rechargeable nickel–cadmium batteries was investigated with the help of the frequency-dependent reactance Im Z(ω) and the pseudo-capacitance C(ω) in the frequency range between 1 kHz [...] Read more.

With respect to aeronautical applications, the state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) of rechargeable nickel–cadmium batteries was investigated with the help of the frequency-dependent reactance Im Z(ω) and the pseudo-capacitance C(ω) in the frequency range between 1 kHz and 0.1 Hz. The method of SOC monitoring using impedance spectroscopy is evaluated with the example of 1.5-year long-term measurements of commercial devices. A linear correlation between voltage and capacitance is observed as long as overcharge and deep discharge are avoided. Pseudo-charge Q(ω) = C(ω)⋅U at 1 Hz with respect to the rated capacity is proposed as a reliable SOH indicator for rapid measurements. The benefit of different evaluation methods and diagram types for impedance data is outlined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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13 pages, 3934 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lithium-Ion Capacitor Safety Testing for Commercial Application

by Omonayo Bolufawi, Annadanesh Shellikeri and Jim P. Zheng

Batteries 2019, 5(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040074 - 7 Dec 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8462

Abstract

The lithium-ion capacitor (LIC) is a recent innovation in the area of electrochemical energy storage that hybridizes lithium-ion battery anode material and an electrochemical double layer capacitor cathode material as its electrodes. The high power compared to batteries and higher energy compared to [...] Read more.

The lithium-ion capacitor (LIC) is a recent innovation in the area of electrochemical energy storage that hybridizes lithium-ion battery anode material and an electrochemical double layer capacitor cathode material as its electrodes. The high power compared to batteries and higher energy compared to capacitors has made it a promising energy-storage device for powering hand-held and portable electronic systems/consumer electronics, hybrid electric vehicles, and electric vehicles. The swelling and gassing of the LIC when subjected to abuse conditions is still a critical issue concerning the safe application in power electronics and commercial devices. However, it is imperative to carry out a thorough investigation that characterizes the safe operation of LICs. We investigated and studied the safety of LIC for commercial applications, by conducting a comprehensive abuse tests on LIC 200 F pouch cells with voltage range from 3.8 V to 2.2 V manufactured by General Capacitors LLC. The abuse tests include overcharge, external short circuit, crush (flat metal plate and blunt indentation), nail penetration test, and external heat test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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12 pages, 2715 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EIS Study on the Electrode-Separator Interface Lamination

by Martin Frankenberger, Madhav Singh, Alexander Dinter and Karl-Heinz Pettinger

Batteries 2019, 5(4), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5040071 - 17 Nov 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 15621

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive study of the influences of lamination at both electrode-separator interfaces of lithium-ion batteries consisting of LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂ cathodes and graphite anodes. Typically, electrode-separator lamination shows a reduced capacity fade at fast-charging cycles. [...] Read more.

This paper presents a comprehensive study of the influences of lamination at both electrode-separator interfaces of lithium-ion batteries consisting of LiNi_1/3Mn_1/3Co_1/3O₂ cathodes and graphite anodes. Typically, electrode-separator lamination shows a reduced capacity fade at fast-charging cycles. To study this behavior in detail, the anode and cathode were laminated separately to the separator and compared to the fully laminated and non-laminated state in single-cell format. The impedance of the cells was measured at different states of charge and during the cycling test up to 1500 fast-charging cycles. Lamination on the cathode interface clearly shows an initial decrease in the surface resistance with no correlation to aging effects along cycling, while lamination on both electrode-separator interfaces reduces the growth of the surface resistance along cycling. Lamination only on the anode-separator interface shows up to be sufficient to maintain the enhanced fast-charging capability for 1500 cycles, what we prove to arise from a significant reduction in growth of the solid electrolyte interface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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16 pages, 5033 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Post-Mortem Study of Stacked 16 Ah Graphite//LiFePO₄ Pouch Cells Cycled at 5 °C

by Arianna Moretti, Diogo Vieira Carvalho, Niloofar Ehteshami, Elie Paillard, Willy Porcher, David Brun-Buisson, Jean-Baptiste Ducros, Iratxe de Meatza, Aitor Eguia-Barrio, Khiem Trad and Stefano Passerini

Batteries 2019, 5(2), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5020045 - 7 May 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 11403

Abstract

Herein, the post-mortem study on 16 Ah graphite//LiFePO₄ pouch cells is reported. Aiming to understand their failure mechanism, taking place when cycling at low temperature, the analysis of the cell components taken from different portions of the stacks and from different positions [...] Read more.

Herein, the post-mortem study on 16 Ah graphite//LiFePO₄ pouch cells is reported. Aiming to understand their failure mechanism, taking place when cycling at low temperature, the analysis of the cell components taken from different portions of the stacks and from different positions in the electrodes, is performed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS). Also, the recovered electrodes are used to reassemble half-cells for further cycle tests. The combination of the several techniques detects an inhomogeneous ageing of the electrodes along the stack and from the center to the edge of the electrode, most probably due to differences in the pressure experienced by the electrodes. Interestingly, XPS reveals that more electrolyte decomposition took place at the edge of the electrodes and at the outer part of the cell stack independently of the ageing conditions. Finally, the use of high cycling currents buffers the low temperature detrimental effects, resulting in longer cycle life and less inhomogeneities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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15 pages, 4500 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synthetic vs. Real Driving Cycles: A Comparison of Electric Vehicle Battery Degradation

by George Baure and Matthieu Dubarry

Batteries 2019, 5(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5020042 - 1 May 2019

Cited by 68 | Viewed by 14245

Abstract

Automobile dependency and the inexorable proliferation of electric vehicles (EVs) compels accurate predictions of cycle life across multiple usage conditions and for multiple lithium-ion battery systems. Synthetic driving cycles have been essential in accumulating data on EV battery lifetimes. However, since battery deterioration [...] Read more.

Automobile dependency and the inexorable proliferation of electric vehicles (EVs) compels accurate predictions of cycle life across multiple usage conditions and for multiple lithium-ion battery systems. Synthetic driving cycles have been essential in accumulating data on EV battery lifetimes. However, since battery deterioration is path-dependent, the representability of synthetic cycles must be questioned. Hence, this work compared three different synthetic driving cycles to real driving data in terms of mimicking actual EV battery degradation. It was found that the average current and charge capacity during discharge were important parameters in determining the appropriate synthetic profile, and traffic conditions have a significant impact on cell lifetimes. In addition, a stage of accelerated capacity fade was observed and shown to be induced by an increased loss of lithium inventory (LLI) resulting from irreversible Li plating. New metrics, the ratio of the loss of active material at the negative electrode (LAM_NE) to the LLI and the plating threshold, were proposed as possible predictors for a stage of accelerated degradation. The results presented here demonstrated tracking properties, such as capacity loss and resistance increase, were insufficient in predicting cell lifetimes, supporting the adoption of metrics based on the analysis of degradation modes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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13 pages, 3771 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Innovative Incremental Capacity Analysis Implementation for C/LiFePO₄ Cell State-of-Health Estimation in Electrical Vehicles

by Elie Riviere, Ali Sari, Pascal Venet, Frédéric Meniere and Yann Bultel

Batteries 2019, 5(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5020037 - 1 Apr 2019

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 9464

Abstract

This paper presents a fully embedded state of health (SoH) estimator for widely used C/LiFePO₄ batteries. The SoH estimation study was intended for applications in electric vehicles (EV). C/LiFePO₄ cells were aged using pure electric vehicle cycles and were monitored with [...] Read more.

This paper presents a fully embedded state of health (SoH) estimator for widely used C/LiFePO₄ batteries. The SoH estimation study was intended for applications in electric vehicles (EV). C/LiFePO₄ cells were aged using pure electric vehicle cycles and were monitored with an automotive battery management system (BMS). An online capacity estimator based on incremental capacity analysis (ICA) is developed. The proposed estimator is robust to depth of discharge (DoD), charging current and temperature variations to satisfy real vehicle requirements. Finally, the SoH estimator tuned on C/LiFePO₄ cells from one manufacturer was tested on C/LiFePO₄ cells from another LFP (lithium iron phosphate) manufacturer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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16 pages, 4928 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combining a Fatigue Model and an Incremental Capacity Analysis on a Commercial NMC/Graphite Cell under Constant Current Cycling with and without Calendar Aging

by Tiphaine Plattard, Nathalie Barnel, Loïc Assaud, Sylvain Franger and Jean-Marc Duffault

Batteries 2019, 5(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010036 - 21 Mar 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 9304

Abstract

Reliable development of LIBs requires that they be correlated with accurate aging studies. The present project focuses on the implementation of a weighted ampere-hour throughput model, taking into account the operating parameters, and modulating the impact of an exchanged ampere-hour by the well-established [...] Read more.

Reliable development of LIBs requires that they be correlated with accurate aging studies. The present project focuses on the implementation of a weighted ampere-hour throughput model, taking into account the operating parameters, and modulating the impact of an exchanged ampere-hour by the well-established three major stress factors: temperature, current intensity (rated), and state of charge (SoC). This model can drift with time due to repeated solicitation, so its parameters need to be updated by on-field measurements, in order to remain accurate. These on-field measurements are submitted to the so-called Incremental Capacity Analysis method (ICA), consisting in the analysis of dQ/dV as a function of V. It is a direct indicator of the state of health of the cell, as the experimental peaks are related to the active material chemical/structural evolution, such as phase transitions and recorded potential plateaus during charging/discharging. It is here applied to NMC/graphite based commercial cells. These peaks’ evolution can be correlated with the here-defined Ah-kinetic and

\sqrt{t}

-kinetic aging, which are chemistry-dependent, and therefore, has to be adjusted to the different types of cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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18 pages, 3401 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fast Electrical Characterizations of High-Energy Second Life Lithium-Ion Batteries for Embedded and Stationary Applications

by Honorat Quinard, Eduardo Redondo-Iglesias, Serge Pelissier and Pascal Venet

Batteries 2019, 5(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010033 - 14 Mar 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 11503

Abstract

This paper focuses on the fast characterization of automotive second life lithium-ion batteries that have been recently re-used in many projects to create battery storages for stationary applications and sporadically for embedded applications. Specific criteria dedicated to the second life are first discussed. [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on the fast characterization of automotive second life lithium-ion batteries that have been recently re-used in many projects to create battery storages for stationary applications and sporadically for embedded applications. Specific criteria dedicated to the second life are first discussed. After a short review of the available state of health indicators and their associated determination techniques, some electrical characterization tests are explored through an experimental campaign. This offline identification aims to estimate the remaining ability of the battery to store energy. Twenty-four modules from six different commercial electric vehicles are analyzed. Well-known methodologies like incremental capacity analysis (ICA) and constant voltage phase analysis during CC-CV charge highlight the difficulty—and sometimes the impossibility—to apply traditional tools on a battery pack or on individual modules, in the context of real second life applications. Indeed, the diversity of the available second life batteries induces a combination of aging mechanisms that leads to a complete heterogeneity from a cell to another. Moreover, due to the unknown first life of the battery, typical state of health determination methodologies are difficult to use. A new generic technique based on a partial coulometric counter is proposed and compared to other techniques. In the present case study, the partial coulometric counter allows a fast determination of the capacity aging. In conclusion, future improvements and working tracks are addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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17 pages, 2127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Christophe Savard and Emiliia V. Iakovleva

Batteries 2019, 5(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010029 - 11 Mar 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6984

Abstract

Devices operating in complete energy autonomy are multiplying: small fixed signaling applications or sensors often operating in a network. To ensure operation for a substantial period, for applications with difficult physical access, a means of storing electrical energy must be included in the [...] Read more.

Devices operating in complete energy autonomy are multiplying: small fixed signaling applications or sensors often operating in a network. To ensure operation for a substantial period, for applications with difficult physical access, a means of storing electrical energy must be included in the system. The battery remains the most deployed solution. Lead-acid batteries still have a significant share of this market due to the maturity of their technology. However, even by sizing all the system elements according to the needs and the available renewable energy, some failure occurs. The battery is the weak element. It can be quickly discharged when the renewable energy source is no longer present for a while. It can also be overloaded or subjected to high temperatures, which affects its longevity. This paper presents a suggested improvement for these systems, systematically adding extra devices to reduce excess charges and heat and allowing the battery use at lower charges. The interest of this strategy is presented by comparing the number of days of system failure and the consequences for battery aging. To demonstrate the interest of the proposed improvement track, a colored Petri net is deployed to model the battery degradation parameters evolution, in order to compare them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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11 pages, 4348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lifetime Prediction of Lithium-Ion Capacitors Based on Accelerated Aging Tests

by Nagham El Ghossein, Ali Sari and Pascal Venet

Batteries 2019, 5(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries5010028 - 5 Mar 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8379

Abstract

Lithium-ion Capacitors (LiCs) that have intermediate properties between lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors are still considered as a new technology whose aging is not well studied in the literature. This paper presents the results of accelerated aging tests applied on 12 samples of LiCs. [...] Read more.

Lithium-ion Capacitors (LiCs) that have intermediate properties between lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors are still considered as a new technology whose aging is not well studied in the literature. This paper presents the results of accelerated aging tests applied on 12 samples of LiCs. Two high temperatures (60 °C and 70 °C) and two voltage values were used for aging acceleration for 20 months. The maximum and the minimum voltages (3.8 V and 2.2 V respectively) had different effects on capacitance fade. Cells aging at 2.2 V encountered extreme decrease of the capacitance. After storing them for only one month at 60 °C, they lost around 22% of their initial capacitance. For this reason, an aging model was developed for cells aging at the lowest voltage value to emphasize the huge decrease of the lifetime at this voltage condition. Moreover, two measurement tools of the capacitance were compared to find the optimal method for following the evolution of the aging process. It was proved that electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is the most accurate measurement technique that can reveal the actual level of degradation inside a LiC cell. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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13 pages, 2761 KiB

Open AccessArticle

State-of-Charge Monitoring by Impedance Spectroscopy during Long-Term Self-Discharge of Supercapacitors and Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Peter Kurzweil and Mikhail Shamonin

Batteries 2018, 4(3), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries4030035 - 1 Aug 2018

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 10755

Abstract

Frequency-dependent capacitance C(ω) is a rapid and reliable method for the determination of the state-of-charge (SoC) of electrochemical storage devices. The state-of-the-art of SoC monitoring using impedance spectroscopy is reviewed, and complemented by original 1.5-year long-term electrical impedance measurements of [...] Read more.

Frequency-dependent capacitance C(ω) is a rapid and reliable method for the determination of the state-of-charge (SoC) of electrochemical storage devices. The state-of-the-art of SoC monitoring using impedance spectroscopy is reviewed, and complemented by original 1.5-year long-term electrical impedance measurements of several commercially available supercapacitors. It is found that the kinetics of the self-discharge of supercapacitors comprises at least two characteristic time constants in the range of days and months. The curvature of the Nyquist curve at frequencies above 10 Hz (charge transfer resistance) depends on the available electric charge as well, but it is of little use for applications. Lithium-ion batteries demonstrate a linear correlation between voltage and capacitance as long as overcharge and deep discharge are avoided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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12 pages, 8299 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Battery Architecture Dependability

by Christophe Savard, Pascal Venet, Éric Niel, Laurent Piétrac and Ali Sari

Batteries 2018, 4(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries4030031 - 3 Jul 2018

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6171

Abstract

This paper presents various solutions for organizing an accumulator battery. It examines three different architectures: series-parallel, parallel-series and C3C architecture, which spread the cell output current flux to three other cells. Alternatively, to improve a several cell system reliability, it is possible to [...] Read more.

This paper presents various solutions for organizing an accumulator battery. It examines three different architectures: series-parallel, parallel-series and C3C architecture, which spread the cell output current flux to three other cells. Alternatively, to improve a several cell system reliability, it is possible to insert more cells than necessary and soliciting them less. Classical RAMS (Reliability, Availability, Maintainability, Safety) solutions can be deployed by adding redundant cells or by tolerating some cell failures. With more cells than necessary, it is also possible to choose active cells by a selection algorithm and place the others at rest. Each variant is simulated for the three architectures in order to determine the impact on battery-operative dependability, that is to say the duration of how long the battery complies specifications. To justify that the conventional RAMS solutions are not deployed to date, this article examines the influence on operative dependability. If the conventional variants allow to extend the moment before the battery stops to be operational, using an algorithm with a suitable optimization criterion further extend the battery mission time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

26 pages, 5912 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Degradation and Aging Routes of Ni-Rich Cathode Based Li-Ion Batteries

by Philipp Teichert, Gebrekidan Gebresilassie Eshetu, Hannes Jahnke and Egbert Figgemeier

Batteries 2020, 6(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries6010008 - 22 Jan 2020

Cited by 84 | Viewed by 24087

Abstract

Driven by the increasing plea for greener transportation and efficient integration of renewable energy sources, Ni-rich metal layered oxides, namely NMC, Li [Ni_1−x−yCo_yMn_z] O₂ (x + y ≤ 0.4), and NCA, Li [...] Read more.

Driven by the increasing plea for greener transportation and efficient integration of renewable energy sources, Ni-rich metal layered oxides, namely NMC, Li [Ni_1−x−yCo_yMn_z] O₂ (x + y ≤ 0.4), and NCA, Li [Ni_1−x−yCo_xAl_y] O₂, cathode materials have garnered huge attention for the development of Next-Generation lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The impetus behind such huge celebrity includes their higher capacity and cost effectiveness when compared to the-state-of-the-art LiCoO₂ (LCO) and other low Ni content NMC versions. However, despite all the beneficial attributes, the large-scale deployment of Ni-rich NMC based LIBs poses a technical challenge due to less stability of the cathode/electrolyte interphase (CEI) and diverse degradation processes that are associated with electrolyte decomposition, transition metal cation dissolution, cation–mixing, oxygen release reaction etc. Here, the potential degradation routes, recent efforts and enabling strategies for mitigating the core challenges of Ni-rich NMC cathode materials are presented and assessed. In the end, the review shed light on the perspectives for the future research directions of Ni-rich cathode materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging)

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