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Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences

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A special issue of Behavioral Sciences (ISSN 2076-328X). This special issue belongs to the section "Psychiatric, Emotional and Behavioral Disorders".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2024) | Viewed by 19994

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xuechen Ding

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Guest Editor

School of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
Interests: social behavior; peer relationship; socioemotional adjustment
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Wan Ding

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Guest Editor

College of Psychology, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China
Interests: parenting and child mental health
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Normative development of children’s social, emotional, and school adjustment stems from sources including both family and peer groups. Parent–child and peer interactions have unique and significant implications for children, and these social relationships serve as a foundation for feelings of security and belonging. During the socialization process in family and school contexts, children display a wide variety of social behaviors, including aggressive behavior, social withdrawal, prosocial behavior, antisocial behavior, cooperative behavior, bullying behavior, etc. However, several issues require further exploration. For example, what are the different causal relations that might underlie children’s social behaviors? What is the trajectory of these social behaviors at different developmental stages? Could we find a more neural basis for these social behaviors via advanced techniques (e.g., EEG, ERP, fNIRS, fMRI)? In light of these premises, this Special Issue aims to advance the literature on the development trajectory of children’s social behaviors and their cognitive neural mechanisms. We therefore call for papers on empirical research that focuses on predictors and outcomes of children’s social behaviors in family and school contexts from early childhood to emerging adulthood, risk/protective factors among these associations, social behaviors in different contexts, or their cognitive neural mechanisms. A longitudinal design is especially encouraged. Cross-sectional designs that focus on age differences, meta-analysis, and systematic review are also welcome.

The tentative completion schedule is as follows:
Abstract submission deadline: April 30, 2024
Notification of abstract acceptance: May 15, 2024
Proposed submission deadline: November 20, 2024

Dr. Xuechen Ding
Dr. Wan Ding
Guest Editors

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Keywords

social behavior
social withdrawal
aggressive behavior
prosocial behavior
antisocial behavior
parent–child interaction
parenting
bullying
adjustment
neuroscience

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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12 pages, 589 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Associations Between Emotional Resilience and Mental Health Among Chinese Adolescents in the School Context: The Mediating Role of Positive Emotions

by Zhongmin Zhu, Biao Sang, Junsheng Liu, Yuyang Zhao and Ying Liu

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(5), 567; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15050567 - 23 Apr 2025

Abstract

Positive emotions play an essential role in adolescent resilience and mental healthy development, yet whether it affects emotional resilience, mental health, and the internal mechanism remains unknown. Therefore, the current study aims to, using a two-wave panel design, examine the relationship between emotional resilience and mental health, as well as the mediating role of positive emotion. We conducted this longitudinal study in two waves with a 6-month interval, surveyed 266 Chinese adolescents (54.9% boys, M_age = 14.11 years, SD = 1.77), and constructed a mediation model. The participants completed the measures of demographic information, positive emotions, emotional resilience, and mental health at two times. The results revealed that after controlling for gender and age, Time 2 positive emotions partially mediated the relationship between Time 1 emotional resilience and Time 2 mental health. In detail, emotional resilience is positively correlated with life satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall mental health. It shows a negative correlation with symptoms of depression and anxiety, partly mediated by positive emotions. The findings highlighted the role of emotional resilience in mitigating psychological problems and enhancing mental health in Chinese adolescents. The implications and limitations were discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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18 pages, 385 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Risks of Being a Wallflower: Exploring Links Between Introversion, Aspects of Solitude, and Indices of Well-Being in Adolescence

by Anna Stone, Megan DeGroot, Alicia McVarnock, Tiffany Cheng, Julie C. Bowker and Robert J. Coplan

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15020108 - 21 Jan 2025

Viewed by 1776

Abstract

The aim of the current study was to examine the unique relations between introversion and indices of well-being while accounting for aspects of solitude (i.e., time spent alone, shyness, affinity for solitude, and negative thinking while alone). Participants were n = 1036 adolescents (15–19 years of age, M = 16.19 years, SD = 0.58; 67% girls) who completed a series of self-report measures assessing introversion, time spent alone, negative thinking while alone, motivations for solitude (shyness, affinity for solitude), and indices of well-being (i.e., loneliness, positive/negative affect, general well-being). Overall, results from correlational analyses indicated that introversion was associated with poorer functioning across all indices of well-being. However, when controlling for aspects of solitude, results from hierarchical regression analyses indicated a complex set of associations that varied across indices of well-being. Introversion remained associated significantly and negatively with well-being and positive affect, was no longer related significantly to loneliness, and became related significantly and negatively to negative affect. Findings are discussed in terms of how personality characteristics and aspects of solitude can impact the well-being of adolescents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

15 pages, 1915 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship Between Mental Health Literacy and Social Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study in China

by Jiali Pan, Tianyu Xu and Dan Li

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15010029 - 30 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1454

Abstract

In this study, 793 college students were examined through the utilization of the socioeconomic status scale, mental health literacy scale, and social well-being questionnaire at T1 and T2, respectively, with the aim of exploring the relationship between mental health literacy and social well-being and the relative static and dynamic development of the two. The results indicated that mental health literacy was significantly and positively correlated with social well-being to a moderate extent (T1: r = 0.31; T2: r = 0.35). Furthermore, the across-lagged model was employed to determine the relationship between mental health literacy and social well-being over time, revealing that mental health literacy and social well-being merely have a unidirectional predictive relationship; social well-being at T1 can significantly and positively predict mental health literacy at T2, but mental health literacy at T1 cannot predict social well-being at T2. We carried out the latent change score model and discovered that a higher level of T1 social well-being can facilitate the enhancement of mental health literacy subsequently. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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13 pages, 284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Social Situations Affect the Relationships Between Academic Emotional Suppression and Expression and Likability Among Adolescents

by Ying Liu, Biao Sang and Xiaoyun Chai

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1184; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121184 - 11 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1367

Abstract

Social situation is an important factor in determining whether or not individuals express emotions and how effectively they express them, but few researchers have explored its role (e.g., with others of varying degrees of intimacy and hierarchy) in the social outcomes of academic emotional suppression and expression. Relationships between the adolescents’ suppression and expression of emotions and their likability in social situations involving a range of people (e.g., classmates, good friends, teachers) were examined in the current study. A total of 120 adolescents and 74 teachers were selected for this investigation, the results indicating a difference in an individual’s likability when suppressing and expressing academic emotions in the presence of others. Specifically, expressing academic emotions in the presence of good friends achieves a higher level of likability than in the presence of classmates; furthermore, suppressing negative academic emotions in the presence of classmates garners a higher level of likability. Adolescents who express their positive and negative academic emotions in the presence of good friends can get higher likability. Teachers prefer adolescents who express positive academic emotions in their presence. These findings emphasize the importance of social situations in the use of strategies to regulate academic emotion regulation and verify the adaptability of emotional regulation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

13 pages, 1092 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Observed Shyness-Related Behavioral Responses to a Self-Presentation Speech Task: A Study Comparing Chinese and Canadian Children

by Xiaoxue Kong, Taigan L. MacGowan, Shumin Wang, Yan Li and Louis A. Schmidt

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 1147; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14121147 - 28 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 977

Abstract

Past research suggests that expressions of shyness are associated with several distinct behaviors that may differ between Eastern and Western cultures. However, this evidence has largely been derived from subjective ratings, such self-, teacher-, and parent-report measures. In this study, we examined between-country differences on measures of directly observed shyness-related behaviors during a speech task in children. Participants were 74 Chinese (M_age = 4.76 years old, SD_age = 0.62 years old; 77.0% male) and 189 Canadian (M_age = 4.80 years old, SD_age = 0.82 years old; 48.1% male) children aged 4–6 years. As predicted, the results reveal that Chinese children exhibit a higher frequency of gaze aversion and lower total time speaking compared to Canadian children. Additionally, significant interactions between country and gender were found for fidgeting and smiling behaviors, indicating that cultural expectations and norms influence how boys and girls express some shyness-related behaviors in social situations. These preliminary findings extend prior cross-cultural research on shyness-related behaviors indexed using subjective report measures to directly observed measures, highlighting the importance of cultural context in shaping children’s responses to social evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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12 pages, 509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developmental Trajectories of Loneliness Among Chinese Early Adolescents: The Roles of Early Peer Preference and Social Withdrawal

by Wanfen Chen and Bowen Xiao

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14111063 - 7 Nov 2024

Viewed by 873

Abstract

This study aimed to examine distinct loneliness trajectories and to explore the roles of group-level peer preference and individual-level social withdrawal (i.e., unsociability and shyness) as predictors of these trajectories. Participants were 1134 Chinese elementary school students (Mage = 10.44 years; 565 boys). Data were collected from self-reports and peer nominations. Latent class growth analysis (LCGA) was employed to identify distinct trajectories of loneliness, and multinomial logistic regression was subsequently used to examine the relationships between these trajectories and their predictors. Results showed that three loneliness trajectories were identified: high increasing, moderate decreasing, and low decreasing. Participants at baseline with higher peer preference were more likely to belong to the low decreasing trajectory subgroup rather than the other two subgroups. Furthermore, those at Time 1 with higher unsociability had lower odds of being classified into the moderate or low decreasing trajectory subgroup compared to the high increasing trajectory subgroup. Additionally, participants at baseline with higher shyness had reduced likelihoods of following the low decreasing trajectory subgroup as opposed to the other two subgroups. These results have implications for how we understand both the different subgroups of loneliness trajectories and the predictions of peer preference and social withdrawal on these trajectories in Chinese early adolescents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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16 pages, 717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Emotional Intelligence Influences Students’ Life Satisfaction During University Lockdown: The Chain Mediating Effect of Interpersonal Competence and Anxiety

by Yuyang Zhao, Biao Sang and Cody Ding

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 1059; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14111059 - 7 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1696

Abstract

Students’ life satisfaction is an essential reflection of their well-being, particularly during challenging times. The COVID-19 pandemic, a global catastrophe, has had an immeasurably negative impact on individuals’ daily lives. It has also provided an opportunity to investigate the factors contributing to students’ life satisfaction during such difficult times. Considering the unique characteristics of these university students, the current study examines the impact of emotional intelligence (EI) on students’ life satisfaction, as well as the direct and sequential mediating effects of interpersonal competence and anxiety on this relationship. A total of 297 university students in Shanghai, China, participated in the study. All participants were recruited online during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2022. Four well-established questionnaires were utilized to assess students’ trait emotional intelligence, interpersonal competence, anxiety, and life satisfaction. The findings indicate that interpersonal competence significantly mediates the relationship between EI and life satisfaction. Although anxiety does not significantly mediate this relationship, it plays a notable role in the sequential mediating effect involving interpersonal competence and anxiety. The study reveals that nurturing students’ EI can significantly enhance their interpersonal competence, which can reduce anxiety and ultimately increase their self-reported life satisfaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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15 pages, 1105 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shyness, Sport Engagement, and Internalizing Problems in Chinese Children: The Moderating Role of Class Sport Participation in a Multi-Level Model

by Rumei Zhao, Xiaoxue Kong, Mingxin Li, Xinyi Zhu, Jiyueyi Wang, Wan Ding and Xuechen Ding

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(8), 661; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14080661 - 1 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1511

Abstract

The relations between shyness and internalizing problems have been mainly explored at the individual level, with little known about its dynamics at the group level. This study aims to examine the mediating effect of individual-level sport engagement and the moderating effect of class-level sport participation in the relations between shyness and internalizing problems. The participants were 951 children attending primary and middle school from grade 3 to grade 7 (Mage = 11 years, 509 boys) in urban areas of China. Cross-sectional data were collected using self-report assessments. Multi-level analysis indicated that (1) shyness was positively associated with internalizing problems; (2) sport engagement partially mediated the relations between shyness and internalizing problems; and (3) class sport participation was a cross-level moderator in the mediating relations between shyness, sport engagement, and internalizing problems. Shy children in classes with a higher level of sport participation tend to have less sport engagement and more internalizing problems than those in classes with a lower level of sport participation. These findings illuminate implications from a multi-level perspective for shy children’s adjustment in a Chinese context. The well-being of shy children could be improved by intervening in sport activity, addressing both individual engagement and group dynamics, such as class participation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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20 pages, 2228 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimating the Heterogeneous Causal Effects of Parent–Child Relationships among Chinese Children with Oppositional Defiant Symptoms: A Machine Learning Approach

by Haiyan Zhou, Fengkai Han, Ruoxi Chen, Jiajin Huang, Jianhui Chen and Xiuyun Lin

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 504; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060504 - 18 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1471

Abstract

Oppositional defiant symptoms are some of the most common developmental symptoms in children and adolescents with and without oppositional defiant disorder. Research has addressed the close association of the parent–child relationship (PCR) with oppositional defiant symptoms. However, it is necessary to further investigate the underlying mechanism for forming targeted intervention strategies. By using a machine learning-based causal forest (CF) model, we investigated the heterogeneous causal effects of the PCR on oppositional defiant symptoms in children in Chinese elementary schools. Based on the PCR improvement in two consecutive years, 423 children were divided into improved and control groups. The assessment of oppositional defiant symptoms (AODS) in the second year was set as the dependent variable. Additionally, several factors based on the multilevel family model and the baseline AODS in the first year were included as covariates. Consistent with expectations, the CF model showed a significant causal effect between the PCR and oppositional defiant symptoms in the samples. Moreover, the causality exhibited heterogeneity. The causal effect was greater in those children with higher baseline AODS, a worse family atmosphere, and lower emotion regulation abilities in themselves or their parents. Conversely, the parenting style played a positive role in causality. These findings enhance our understanding of how the PCR contributes to the development of oppositional defiant symptoms conditioned by factors from a multilevel family system. The heterogeneous causality in the observation data, established using the machine learning approach, could be helpful in forming personalized family-oriented intervention strategies for children with oppositional defiant symptoms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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19 pages, 778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interplay between Children’s Electronic Media Use and Prosocial Behavior: The Chain Mediating Role of Parent–Child Closeness and Emotion Regulation

by Xiaocen Liu, Shuliang Geng and Donghui Dou

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060436 - 23 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2990

Abstract

In the contemporary digital milieu, children’s pervasive engagement with electronic media is ubiquitous in their daily lives, presenting complex implications for their socialization. Prosocial behavior, a cornerstone of social interaction and child development, is intricately intertwined with these digital experiences. This relation gains further depth, considering the significant roles of parent–child relationships and emotion regulation in shaping children’s social trajectories. This study surveyed 701 families to examine the association between children’s electronic media use and prosocial behavior, specifically exploring the mediating roles of parent–child closeness and emotion regulation. Structural equation modeling was employed for the analysis. Children’s electronic media use negatively correlated with prosocial behavior, parent–child closeness, and emotion regulation. In contrast, a positive association emerged between parent–child closeness, emotion regulation, and prosocial behavior. Emotion regulation also correlated positively with prosocial behavior. Statistical analyses revealed that parent–child closeness and emotion regulation function as both individual and sequential mediators in the relation between electronic media use and prosocial behavior. The study’s analyses reveal that fostering children’s prosocial behavior in the digital era requires strong family ties, effective emotional management, and balanced digital exposure, which are pivotal for their comprehensive development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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11 pages, 412 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reciprocal Relations between Cognitive Empathy and Post-Traumatic Growth in School Bullying Victims

by Fang Liu, Bo Chen, Xinrong Liu, Yifan Zheng, Xiao Zhou and Rui Zhen

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060435 - 23 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2008

Abstract

The association between post-traumatic growth (PTG) and cognitive empathy is well documented; however, few studies have tested the causal pathways explaining this association in school bullying victims’ later recovery and growth in the long term. This study used a longitudinal design to examine the reciprocal relations between cognitive empathy and post-traumatic growth (PTG) in school bullying victims. We screened 725 adolescents who had experienced school bullying as our final subjects out of the 2173 adolescents we surveyed over three periods (November 2019, 2020, and 2021). Controlling for gender, cross-lagged analysis revealed that both cognitive empathy at T1 and T2 predicted adolescents’ later PTG at T2 (γ = 0.096, p < 0.05) and T3 (γ = 0.085, p < 0.05), respectively, but the predictive effect across time points from PTG to cognitive empathy was not significant. The results delineated a specific directionality in the relation between cognitive empathy and PTG and suggested an important role of cognitive empathy in fostering school bullying victims’ later recovery and growth. These findings contribute to ongoing research into ways researchers and educators may help and support school bullying victims. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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Review

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12 pages, 728 KiB

Open AccessReview

Ineffective Learning Behaviors and Their Psychological Mechanisms among Adolescents in Online Learning: A Narrative Review

by Ji Li, Li Fang, Yu Liu, Jiayu Xie and Xiaoyu Wang

Behav. Sci. 2024, 14(6), 477; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs14060477 - 6 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1663

Abstract

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries and regions experienced a surge in online learning, but the public complained about and questioned its effectiveness. One of the most important reasons for this was the inadequate metacognitive abilities of adolescents. Studies in learning sciences have identified various inefficient learning behaviors among students in online learning, including help abuse, help avoidance, and wheel spinning; all closely related to metacognition. Despite concerns about ecological validity, researchers in psychology have proposed the agenda-based regulation framework, the COPES model, and MAPS model, which may help explain the inefficient learning behaviors among adolescents in online learning. Future studies should aim to verify these theoretical frameworks within the context of online learning and elucidate the causes of inefficient learning behaviors; the design and optimization of online learning systems should be informed by theories in cognitive psychology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Behaviors in Childhood: Causes and Consequences)

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