Dairy

The prevention of human infectious diseases associated with waterborne pathogens is reliant on the effective disinfection of water supplies by drinking water treatment plants and adequately maintained distribution networks. For decades, the chlorination of water has safeguarded public health, where chlorine is broadly applied in both water disinfection and food production facilities, including the dairy industry, from farm to fork. The identification of chlorine disinfection byproducts in water supplies and dairy food produce is of great concern, however, due to their cytotoxic, genotoxic, mutagenic, teratogenic, and potential endocrine-disrupting activity. The association between the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) and tumour formation is documented and has led to the implementation of maximum contaminant levels enforced by the European Union. Furthermore, chlorine resistance in bacterial species is associated with multidrug resistance in clinically relevant pathogens, where antibiotic- and biocidal-resistant genes are also environmental pollutants. Increasing the concentration of chlorine to surmount this resistance will ultimately lead to increasing concentrations of byproducts in both water and food products, exceeding the EU requirements. This article provides insight into chlorine DBPs as a toxicological public health risk and the relationship between chlorine resistance and antibiotic resistance in microbes relevant to dairy food production. Full article

This pilot study investigated whether reductions in enteric CH₄ emissions could be obtained without affecting dry matter intake (DMI) when iodoform was mixed into total mixed rations (TMRs). The experiment consisted of four periods of 14 d with four rumen-cannulated Holstein dairy cows. In the pre-period, no iodoform was added to TMR, while either 8, 16, or 20 mg iodoform/kg DM was added to TMR in the remaining periods in a change-over design. However, the experiment was not balanced across treatments and periods due to unexpected animal responses in the second period. Dry matter intake and gas exchange were measured the last 3 d in each period using respiration chambers. Rumen grab samples were collected for microbial analyses on d 14. Dry matter intake was unaffected by the addition of iodoform to TMR at or below 20 mg/kg DMI. Methane and H₂ yields (g/kg DMI) quadratically decreased (up to 46%) and increased (up to 1127%), respectively, with the increasing dose. This pilot study indicated that CH₄ reductions can be obtained with an addition of up to 20 mg iodoform/kg DM in the diets of dairy cows without affecting DMI. However, high iodine concentration in iodoform limits its use in commercial herds within the EU. Full article

Use of pair housing for preweaning calves has shown positive benefits in terms of health and production, with it also being thought to offer social support in times of stress such as when calves are disbudded. Calf disbudding through thermal cautery is a common procedure, with recognized physiological and behavioral implications. This study’s objective was to utilize continuous monitoring accelerometers to compare the impact of disbudding on the behavior of pair and individually housed calves. Data from an all-year-round dairy herd in the southwest of England were collected via an accelerometer (ABS breeder tag, Genus, Cheshire, UK) fitted to a forelimb of a convenience subset of calves (n = 265) within two weeks of age. Data were collected between March and December 2020 and covered the period 7 days prior to disbudding until 30 days post disbudding. Calves underwent thermal cautery disbudding by farm staff using local anesthesia and a systemic nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. Data from 205 calves (125 pair-housed and 80 individually housed) were included in analysis through generalized estimating equations models. The calf activity (p = 0.98), number of lying bouts (p = 0.40), and lying time per day (p = 0.75) were not associated with the housing treatment of the calves. Calf activity was associated with the day compared to disbudding (p < 0.001), with both housing treatments having decreased activity in the days following disbudding, taking approximately 14 days to return to pretreatment levels. Full article

Cow’s milk is an important part of the human diet, primarily due to its high nutritional content, particularly proteins and fats. The processing of milk enhances its safety while modifying its composition and structure, influencing bioactive peptide release, which impacts protein quality, digestion, and allergenicity. Recently, filtered milk, which undergoes pasteurisation and microfiltration, has become available in UK supermarkets, offering a longer shelf life than pasteurised milk. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of microfiltration on the protein structure of cow’s milk, compared with pasteurisation, including analysis of the peptide profile released after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of commercially available semi-skimmed filtered and pasteurised cow’s milk. Dynamic light scattering analysis revealed that the Z-average particle size of filtered milk was significantly (p < 0.05) larger than that of pasteurised milk across all brands. Additionally, filtered milk exhibited a significantly (p < 0.05) lower free thiol concentration compared with pasteurised milk, indicating structural modifications in proteins. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) further highlighted heterogeneities in the distribution of fat and protein, with filtered milk samples showing increased interaction between fat globules and proteins. After gastrointestinal digestion, the numbers of peptides released from filtered milk exceeded those of peptides released from pasteurised milk by an average of 5%. These results provide new insights into the potential impact of microfiltration on the microstructure of milk. Further investigations using advanced analytical techniques are needed to assess the implications of these changes on protein bioavailability and human health. Full article

Colostrum is a nutrient-dense food rich in proteins, immune modulators, and growth factors essential for neonatal development. Its lipids serve as a key energy source and facilitate cellular functions. While yak colostrum (YC) and buffalo colostrum (BC) exhibit high nutritional value, their lipid compositions remain unclear. This study employed lipidomics to analyze and compare the lipid profiles of YC and BC with cow colostrum (CC), identifying 872 lipids across 33 subclasses. Differential analysis revealed 137, 100, and 131 lipids, with significant expression differences between YC vs. CC, BC vs. CC, and YC vs. BC, respectively. YC exhibited higher levels of α-linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, suggesting a potential role in enhancing neurodevelopment and cognitive function. In contrast, the upregulation of specific lipid components in BC, such as phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylinositol (PI), coupled with the downregulation of specific lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) and lysophosphatidylethanolamine (LPE), indicated a potential benefit for lipid metabolism and inflammatory regulation. These findings suggest that YC may be particularly suitable for neonates requiring enhanced energy support, while BC may offer advantages in lipid metabolism modulation. The study provides critical insights into the distinct lipid compositions of YC and BC, laying a scientific foundation for the development of tailored nutritional supplements. These results also hold significant implications for the dairy industry, driving innovation and optimization of colostrum-based products to meet diverse nutritional demands. Full article

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous environmental bacterium that causes a variety of infections in humans and animals. Although antibiotic resistance in livestock has been extensively documented, continuous surveillance remains crucial for tracking emerging resistance trends and assessing control measures. During 2017 and 2018, 234 strains of P. aeruginosa were identified from 1063 strains of pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria isolated from raw milk of healthy and mastitis cows. In this study, 132 convenience P. aeruginosa isolates were recovered and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility and the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes and virulence factors. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed that these P. aeruginosa isolates were resistant to three (gentamicin, tobramycin, and ceftazidime) out of eight antibiotics. Real-time PCR targeting 21 antibiotic resistance genes indicated that aminoglycoside modifying enzyme (AME) gene ant(3″)-I was most frequently identified in both antimicrobial-resistant and -susceptible P. aeruginosa isolates, followed by aac(6′)-II and aac(6′)-Ib. The β-lactamase encoding gene, bla_PDC, was mainly identified in susceptible P. aeruginosa isolates. Virulence factors screening revealed the presence of exoS, exoT, exoU, pyo, aprA, toxA, plcH, algD, lasB, lasI, lasR, rh1L, and rh1R in resistant isolates, with the detection rates ranging from 16.7% to 88.9%. Additionally, next-generation sequencing was conducted on three resistant isolates to validate these findings. This study showed the antibiotic resistance of P. aeruginosa in raw milk samples from large-scale dairy farms in Jiangsu and Shandong provinces, China. Full article

In this study, the total phenolic and anthocyanin contents, antioxidant activity, color, pH, serum separation, water holding capacity (WHC), rheology, texture and viscosity of cranberry (Cornus mas L.)-enriched yogurt were determined. The addition of cranberries (5–15%) to yogurt resulted in a proportional increase in antioxidant activity, total anthocyanin and phenolic contents. In yogurt samples to which cranberries were added, the WHC increased, while the serum separation values decreased. Due to the red color of the cranberry fruits, the L* (lightness) and b* (yellowness) values decreased, and the a* (redness) values increased (p < 0.05). The sensory evaluation showed that the 10% (w/w) cranberry-added yogurt had the highest general acceptability score when compared to the other samples. Also, it was found that the addition of 10% (w/w) cranberries to the yogurt samples contributed positively to the physicochemical (textural properties, rheological behavior, color and serum separation) and biochemical (antioxidant activity, phenolics and anthocyanins) properties of the samples. The addition of cranberries to yogurt influenced the growth of microbial populations. The number of starter bacteria (counts for Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus) in the yogurt samples with cranberries was slightly lower than in the control sample; but was at an acceptable level. E. coli and coliform bacteria were not detected in either the control yogurt sample or the samples with added cranberries. In conclusion, the addition of 10% (w/w) cranberries to yogurt can be recommended in order to achieve acceptable physical and sensory properties as well as the enrichment of yogurt with nutritional and functional aspects. Full article

This study aims to clarify the use of Limosilactobaillus reuteri (Lmb. reuteri) in dairy products, emphasizing its main characteristics and limitations through a comprehensive literature review. Lmb. reuteri, previously classified as Lactobacillus reuteri, is a lactic acid bacterium (LAB) generally present in the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and other animals, such as sheep, chickens, and rodents. Lmb. reuteri was reclassified as part of the genus Limosilactobacillus in April 2020, reflecting advancements in biomolecular research that identified distinct metabolic and biochemical characteristics among strains. This species is an important producer of reuterin, an antimicrobial compound facilitated through glycerol fermentation via specific enzymatic pathways. In addition, selected strains of Lmb. reuteri can be considered probiotic bacteria with numerous health benefits and that lead to well-being improvements. It is consistently related to improvements in gut health, immune function enhancement, and cholesterol reduction. Furthermore, its application in dairy products has gained prominence and is increasingly reported in the literature due to its technological and sensory benefits. Despite the challenges of its incorporation into the dairy matrix, largely due to the need to supplement these products, it has already demonstrated significant effects on several dairy products’ technological, sensory, and quality characteristics. Future research should address challenges like strain-specific efficacy and regulatory hurdles for the application of Lmb. reuteri in foods. Full article

Doce de leite is a caramel-like confection, mainly produced in several Latin American countries, with increasing popularity worldwide. This overview outlines nine distinct industrial technologies for the production of doce de leite: (1) total batch manufacturing process; (2) batch manufacturing system with fractionated mix addition; (3) manufacturing with pre-concentration in a vacuum evaporator and finishing in an open pan; (4) manufacturing with pre-concentration in a vacuum evaporator, finishing in an open pan, and lactose micro-crystallization; (5) continuous flow manufacturing with total concentration in a vacuum evaporator and a viscosity control holding tank (hot well); (6) manufacturing with total concentration in a vacuum evaporator and sterilization in an autoclave system; (7) manufacturing with sucrose pre-caramelization and a total batch system; (8) manufacturing in colloidal mill without an evaporation process; and (9) manufacturing based of doce de leite bars with a sucrose crystallization stage. We conducted a literature review to gather data on the discussed processes and their principal characteristics, which may be pertinent to doce de leite manufacturers. The choice of a specific process will depend on the desired doce de leite characteristics, the type of doce de leite to be produced, and the manufacturing company’s requirements. When properly integrated, these technologies contribute to efficient and profitable production, yielding high-quality products with appropriate chemical, microbiological, and sensory characteristics at an industrial scale. Full article

The biological and nutritional value of kefir makes it imperative to widen its customer reach by extending its shelf life, enabling its storage and transport at ambient temperatures, and reducing its packaging cost requirements. A well-documented and widely used food processing method that can achieve the above-mentioned outcomes is spray drying through the formulation of kefir powder, with quality attributes that will closely resemble that of the original product. In the present work, a variety of drying carriers (trehalose, fructo-oligosaccharides, maltodextrin, gum arabic, and whey proteins) were studied with regard to their effect on the properties of powdered and reconstituted kefir samples. Particularly, the physicochemical characteristics (moisture content, pH, acidity, color), powder properties (bulk density, tapped density, water solubility index, insoluble matter), adsorption isotherms, particle size distribution, microbiological properties, and structural characteristics of the samples were evaluated. Gum arabic and maltodextrin produced kefir powder samples with the lowest moisture content. Spray drying affected a reduced acidity and, as a consequence, an increased pH in the reconstituted samples, especially without any carrier addition and with trehalose and fructo-oligosaccharides irrespective of their concentration. Desirable color attributes were achieved on the kefir powder samples with trehalose, fructo-oligosaccharides, and maltodextrin regardless of their concentration in the product. Fructo-oligosaccharides, added at 3%, gave the highest values of bulk density, while whey proteins, due to their nature, exhibited the lowest. All carriers tested improved the water solubility index when compared to the control sample. The sample with 10% whey proteins exhibited the lowest moisture adsorption compared to the control at the highest relative humidity environments employed for the test. In the absence of agglomeration, powder granule size and structural morphology were not affected by the carriers. The survival of lactococci in the powdered kefir samples, in comparison to the control product, was higher in the case where 4% trehalose or 5 to 10% whey proteins were added. On the contrary, yeast populations decreased significantly during drying and they were not affected by the presence of the different carriers. As shown by the findings of the present study, trehalose proved to be the most effective carrier, among the others used, for producing high-quality kefir powder products. However, further work is required with regard to the keeping quality of the product during long-term storage. Full article

Dairy cows rely on their complex rumen microbial community to convert host-indigestible feed into nutrients usable for host growth, maintenance, and milk production. Previous work by our group found that the rumen bacterial community is dynamic over the course of two lactations and that cows with high and low milk production efficiency (MPE) have different taxa associated with either phenotype. Here, we characterized the ruminal fungal and archaeal communities to determine if these microbial populations exhibit properties similar to that of the rumen bacteria with respect to MPE over time. Our results show a decrease in fungal diversity over the course of both lactation cycles with an increase during the transition period. The fungal community had only a few taxa associated with efficiency. For the ruminal archaea, we found no change in diversity across both lactation cycles and only taxa in the genus Methanospera were found to be more abundant in high-MPE cows. Given that our previous study used 454 pyrosequencing, we also sought to determine if a resequencing of these communities using Illumina-based technology would alter our previous findings. We found that resequencing showed no significant deviation from our original broad conclusions, with the exception of some minor taxonomic associations. Full article

The production of farm bulk milk with low bacterial counts is a key quality index used by industry to help ensure the production of high-quality dairy products. The primary metrics used to determine the microbiological quality of bulk tank milk on a farm are the total bacteria count (TBC) and thermoduric bacteria count. To maintain TBCs and thermoduric counts at the lowest attainable levels, i.e., TBC ≤ 15,000 cfu/mL and thermoduric bacteria ≤ 200 cfu/mL, it is imperative that milk quality management is treated as a multi-faceted endeavor. Milking equipment cleaning, pre-milking teat preparation, milk filtration, cooling and storage, milking equipment maintenance and management of a cow’s environment and diet must each be managed with best practice in mind if farm bulk milk is to consistently attain low TBCs and thermoduric counts. This is especially important when using chlorine-free cleaning protocols, which are more complex than traditional chlorine-based cleaning methods and if not implemented correctly do not offer the confidence of achieving required hygiene standards. Full article

Low-moisture Mozzarella cheese (LMMC) was manufactured in a dairy factory by stretching fresh curd in hot water, with the addition of 0–30% commercial curd (stored curd) purchased as a semi-finished product. Two commercial fermentation-produced camel chymosins, CC-M and CC-S, were employed as coagulants. The chemical, rheological and microstructural properties of LMMC were assessed during storage. The results demonstrated that cheese composition was not significantly influenced by curd addition. The use of CC-S promoted a slight increase of fat matter with respect to the CC-M samples because of the higher proteolytic specificity and clotting activity of the CC-S enzyme. A higher extent of proteolysis was found in LMMC manufactured with CC-M. The textural properties evaluated during storage revealed an increase in meltability, adhesiveness and springiness over time. The amount of added curd had only a minor effect. The melting behaviour was significantly influenced by proteolysis during the 35-day storage period. Overall, the proteolysis during aging was the most impactful factor affecting the properties of LMMC. Full article

This study evaluated the impact of estrus on changes in rumination over 24 h using data from the DataFlow™ II program and the Heatime RuminAct device, encompassing 634 estrous cycles of dairy cows. During the reference period, three days before estrus, cows spent an average of 511 min per day ruminating. One day before estrus, the total rumination time decreased to 503 min per day. During estrus, rumination time further decreased to 481 min, reflecting a reduction of 31 min per day (6.2%) compared to the pre-estrus reference period. After estrus ended, we observed an immediate increase in rumination time, with post-estrus levels comparable to pre-estrus values. Using a linear model, we assessed the influence of the herd and individual cows on changes in rumination time during estrus compared to the reference period. Our findings confirm the notable impact of estrus on rumination in dairy cows. The reduction in rumination time was most pronounced in heifers (−66 min, −13%), followed by first-lactation cows (−36 min, −7%) and multiparous cows (−16 min, −4%). The influence of the lactation stage was significant, with cows in early lactation showing a greater reduction in rumination compared to cows in later stages. Additionally, high-milk-yielding cows exhibited slightly lower rumination times during estrus, reflecting the interplay between diet composition and energy demands. These results underscore the role of parity, lactation stage, milk yield, and individual differences in shaping rumination behavior during estrus. Behavior-monitoring systems proved valuable for detecting estrus and managing reproduction in dairy herds. Our results showed a notable 6.2% reduction in rumination during estrus, highlighting its potential as a reliable indicator in regions like Slovakia, where economic challenges impact dairy farming sustainability. Full article

The design of product packaging significantly impacts consumer behavior by attracting attention and influencing purchasing choices within a competitive market environment. This research explores the effects of visual packaging elements, such as branding, imagery, and descriptive text, on consumer preferences and decisions. By examining regular, organic, and character-themed milk packaging, the study seeks to determine which features effectively capture attention and drive engagement. Employing eye-tracking tools (Tobii Pro Spectrum and Tobii Pro Lab) alongside survey analysis, the study evaluates consumer focus through fixation durations and heatmap visualizations. The findings indicate that character-themed packaging draws the most attention, with colorful illustrations and prominently displayed brand names playing a central role. Fixation data highlight brand names as the most consistently engaging feature across all packaging types. Regression analysis further reveals that cultural familiarity influences preferences, as international participants favored designs resembling those from their home regions or familiar global brands. These insights underscore the importance of visually appealing and culturally relevant designs in building consumer engagement and brand loyalty. The study offers valuable guidance for marketers and designers aiming to create packaging that resonates with diverse audiences and market demands. Full article

The reasons for culling dairy cows in Uruguay are largely unknown. This study aimed to describe the culling rates of dairy cows and identify the causes of cow culling in 12 commercial herds in Uruguay. We conducted a prospective longitudinal observational study from June 2019 to May 2020 on 12 dairy farms stratified by herd size. Six farms with 51–199 cows, five with 200–500 cows, and one farm with more than 500 cows in the departments of Colonia and San José were included. The cows were pure Holstein and Holstein–Jersey crossbreeds. The overall dairy cow population on these 12 farms was 3126 cows (range: 74–740 cows per farm). The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. The total annual culling rate was 23.1% (721/3126), including sales to slaughter (18.1%; 565/3126), on-farm mortality (4.5%; 141/3126), and dairy sales (0.5%; 15/3126). Cow culling for slaughter because of health (including reproductive) problems represented 70.7% (510/721) of the overall culling rate, most of which were due to reproductive failure (29.3%, 211/721), mastitis (25.9%, 187/721), poor udder conformation (6.2%, 45/721), lameness (4.6%, 33/721), and other diseases (4.7%, 34/721). Mortality represented 19.6% (141/721) of the overall culling rate. Cow culling for slaughter due to health (including reproductive) problems and mortality constituted 90.3% (651/721) of the total culled cows. In conclusion, dairy cows were culled mainly due to illnesses that lead to slaughter or death. Implementing effective measures to improve reproductive rates, reduce mastitis and lameness, and prevent other diseases, such as leukosis, paratuberculosis, and digestive disorders in the studied population would reduce cow culling, increasing cow longevity, animal welfare, and farm profitability. Full article

Large-scale bovine colostrum production yields a significant byproduct called colostrum cream (CC). Colostrum cream is the byproduct of the industry where the colostrum is separated, and the colostrum milk is processed and converted into a colostrum formula and immunoglobulin colostrum powder. However, the disposal of CC poses sustainability challenges. CC composition differs significantly from milk fat and can be a valuable source of fatty acids (FAs) in the human diet. Ghee or butter oil manufactured from cream or butter is a product with almost 99.8% fat, with longer shelf life and a unique flavor. The study was planned to see the effect of FA profile and nutritional health indicators derived from FA profiles, such as the atherogenicity index (AI) and thrombogenicity index (TI) of CC, colostrum butter oil (CBO) samples, butter oil (BO), and sweet cream (SC), as they can significantly influence cardiovascular health. Three SC samples from a dairy plant and six CC samples were collected from a private company. BO and CBO samples were made in atmospheric conditions and analyzed for chemical composition and FA profiles in triplicates. SC and BO samples have higher levels of saturated and trans FAs. CC and CBO are richer in beneficial FAs. CBO offers a healthier profile with higher PUFA/SFAs and a lower AI and TI, which can be an essential source of FAs in the human diet and support sustainability. Full article

Twenty-four Girolando cows (107 ± 56 days in milk, milk yield 22.0 ± 10.25 kg/d, and 529 ± 103 kg body weight) were used in a completely randomized design. The cows were divided according to the following experimental diets: 1—CON (basal diet with ground dry corn) 2—RCS (diet with total replacement of ground corn by rehydrated corn grain silage) 3—RCSP (diet with total replacement of ground corn by rehydrated corn grain silage + 500 g ton⁻¹ of CINBENZA DP100^®, NOVUS International, Inc (Chesterfield, Missouri, U.S.A.). enzymatic extract of Bacillus licheniformis, protease activity 600 IU g⁻¹). Cows fed RCS + RCSP showed higher DMI, milk yield, and better efficiency (MY/DMI) compared to animals fed CON diet. Cows fed the CON diet had higher fecal concentration, and lower total starch digestibility and milk protein content compared to animals supplemented with RCS + RCSP. Cows fed RCSP showed a 2.96% superiority in total starch digestibility compared to animals fed RCS. Animals supplemented with RCSP presented higher milk yield (17.45%) and milk fat content (13.76%) than cows fed RCS. The inclusion of protease in rehydrated corn silage improved dairy cow performance, enhancing dry matter intake, milk yield, and productive efficiency. It also increased starch digestibility and milk protein and fat content, optimizing nutrient utilization. Full article

In this study, the integration of a 3D printed turbulence promoter into a stirred membrane separation cell during dairy wastewater ultrafiltration was investigated. Its effects, along with the effects of stirring, on the permeate flux and membrane fouling were examined. The experiments were carried out at different transmembrane pressures (0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 MPa) and stirring speeds (RPM: 100–400 min⁻¹), both with and without the application of the turbulence promoter. Various parameters were employed to characterize the membrane performance, such as the permeate flux, the flux decline ratio, and the fouling coefficient. To further investigate the membrane fouling mechanisms, mathematical models were used: the resistance-in-series model, the Makardij model, and the Hermia model. With the resistance-in-series model, we examined whether the membrane fouling was reversible (the deposit could be easily removed by washing operations) or irreversible (irreversible fouling) for each measurement, and with the Makardij model, we investigated whether the rate constant of the fouling or the rate constant of the deposit removal was the most important. In the case of the Hermia model, changes in the cake filtration rate constant were monitored. The results indicate that the combination of the 3D printed turbulence promoter and the stirring speed could effectively reduce membrane fouling during dairy wastewater ultrafiltration. Full article