Diversity

24 pages, 4376 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Conservation Genetics of Four Critically Endangered Greek Endemic Plants: A Preliminary Assessment

by Konstantinos Kougioumoutzis, Panayiota Kotsakiozi, Efthalia Stathi, Panayiotis Trigas and Aristeidis Parmakelis

Diversity 2021, 13(4), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13040152 - 31 Mar 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4493

Abstract

The Mediterranean basin constitutes one of the largest global biodiversity hotspots, hosting more than 11,000 endemic plants, and it is recognised as an area with a high proportion of threatened taxa. Nevertheless, only a tiny fraction of the threatened Mediterranean endemics have their [...] Read more.

The Mediterranean basin constitutes one of the largest global biodiversity hotspots, hosting more than 11,000 endemic plants, and it is recognised as an area with a high proportion of threatened taxa. Nevertheless, only a tiny fraction of the threatened Mediterranean endemics have their genetic diversity assessed, and we are unaware if and how climate change might impact their conservation status. This is even more pronounced in Eastern Mediterranean countries with a rich endemic flora, such as Greece, which hosts a large portion of the plant taxa assessed at the European level under the IUCN criteria. Using inter simple sequence repeats (ISSR) markers and species distribution models, we analysed the genetic diversity and investigated the impacts of climate change on four critically endangered and extremely narrow and rare Greek island endemic plants, namely Aethionema retsina, Allium iatrouinum, Convolvulus argyrothamnos, and Saponaria jagelii. All four species are facing intense anthropogenic threats and display moderate genetic diversity (uHe: 0.254–0.322), while climate change is expected to have a profound impact on their range size during the coming decades. A combination of in- and ex-situ measures, such as population reinforcement and seed bank conservation, are urgently needed in order to preserve these highly threatened and rare Greek endemics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation Genetics and Biogeography of Seed Plant Species)

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16 pages, 1961 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Evolutionary History, Diversity, and Ecology of Willows (Salix L.) in the European Alps

by Natascha D. Wagner, Li He and Elvira Hörandl

Diversity 2021, 13(4), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13040146 - 30 Mar 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5843

Abstract

The genus Salix (willows), with 33 species, represents the most diverse genus of woody plants in the European Alps. Many species dominate subalpine and alpine types of vegetation. Despite a long history of research on willows, the evolutionary and ecological factors for this [...] Read more.

The genus Salix (willows), with 33 species, represents the most diverse genus of woody plants in the European Alps. Many species dominate subalpine and alpine types of vegetation. Despite a long history of research on willows, the evolutionary and ecological factors for this species richness are poorly known. Here we will review recent progress in research on phylogenetic relationships, evolution, ecology, and speciation in alpine willows. Phylogenomic reconstructions suggest multiple colonization of the Alps, probably from the late Miocene onward, and reject hypotheses of a single radiation. Relatives occur in the Arctic and in temperate Eurasia. Most species are widespread in the European mountain systems or in the European lowlands. Within the Alps, species differ ecologically according to different elevational zones and habitat preferences. Homoploid hybridization is a frequent process in willows and happens mostly after climatic fluctuations and secondary contact. Breakdown of the ecological crossing barriers of species is followed by introgressive hybridization. Polyploidy is an important speciation mechanism, as 40% of species are polyploid, including the four endemic species of the Alps. Phylogenomic data suggest an allopolyploid origin for all taxa analyzed so far. Further studies are needed to specifically analyze biogeographical history, character evolution, and genome evolution of polyploids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Ecology and Conservation of Alpine Plants)

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6 pages, 2261 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceInteresting Images

Unexplored Refugia with High Cover of Scleractinian Leptoseris spp. and Hydrocorals Stylaster flabelliformis at Lower Mesophotic Depths (75–100 m) on Lava Flows at Reunion Island (Southwestern Indian Ocean)

by Ludovic Hoarau, Héloïse Rouzé, Émilie Boissin, Nicole Gravier-Bonnet, Patrick Plantard, Camille Loisil, Lionel Bigot, Pascale Chabanet, Priscille Labarrère, Lucie Penin, Mehdi Adjeroud and Thierry Mulochau

Diversity 2021, 13(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13040141 - 25 Mar 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 7033

Abstract

Despite increased attention over the last decade on Mesophotic Coral Ecosystems (MCEs) [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity of Mesophotic Ecosystems)

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19 pages, 2370 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Eciton Army Ants—Umbrella Species for Conservation in Neotropical Forests

by Sílvia Pérez-Espona

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030136 - 22 Mar 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6968

Abstract

Identification of priority areas for conservation is crucial for the maintenance and protection of biodiversity, particularly in tropical forests where biodiversity continues to be lost at alarming rates. Surveys and research on umbrella species can provide efficient and effective approaches to identify potential [...] Read more.

Identification of priority areas for conservation is crucial for the maintenance and protection of biodiversity, particularly in tropical forests where biodiversity continues to be lost at alarming rates. Surveys and research on umbrella species can provide efficient and effective approaches to identify potential areas for conservation at small geographical scales. Army ants of the genus Eciton are keystone species in neotropical forests due to their major role as top predators and due to the numerous vertebrate- and invertebrate associated species that depend upon their colonies for survival. These associates range from the iconic army ant-following birds to a wide range of arthropod groups, some of which have evolved intricate morphological, behavioural and/or chemical strategies to conceal their presence and integrate into the colony life. Furthermore, Eciton colonies require large forested areas that support a diverse leaf litter prey community and several field-based and genetic studies have demonstrated the negative consequences of forest fragmentation for the long-term maintenance of these colonies. Therefore, Eciton species will not only act as umbrella for their associates but also for many other species in neotropical forests, in particular for those that require a large extent of forest. This review summarises past and recent accounts of the main taxonomic groups found associated with Eciton colonies, as well research assessing the impact of forest fragmentation on this army ant, to encourage the adoption of Eciton army ants as umbrella species for the identification of priority areas for conservation and assessments of the effect of disturbance in neotropical forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Biogeography and Community Ecology of Ants)

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11 pages, 1277 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Common Vole as a Focal Small Mammal Species in Orchards of the Northern Zone

by Vitalijus Stirkė, Linas Balčiauskas and Laima Balčiauskienė

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030134 - 20 Mar 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2765

Abstract

In 2018–2020, we performed a country-wide study of small mammals in commercial orchards and berry plantations with the aim of determining whether the common vole (Microtus arvalis) is a more suitable focal species than the field vole (M. agrestis) [...] Read more.

In 2018–2020, we performed a country-wide study of small mammals in commercial orchards and berry plantations with the aim of determining whether the common vole (Microtus arvalis) is a more suitable focal species than the field vole (M. agrestis) in the risk assessment of plant protection products in Lithuania (country of the Northern Zone). Common vole was present in 75% of orchards and in 80% of control habitats, accounting for 30% of all trapped individuals. The proportion of this species was stable between years and seasons. The pattern was in agreement with the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, i.e., highest in medium-aged crops, while lowest in habitats with high intensities of agricultural practices. The average relative abundance of common vole in autumn, 2.65 ± 0.52 individuals per 100 trap days, was three times higher than that in summer, with no differences recorded between crops and control habitats. Field vole was present in 30% of locations, only accounting for 2.1% of all trapped individuals. In central and eastern European countries, common vole is more widespread and abundant than field vole. In Lithuania, common vole dominates in orchards and natural habitats and is, therefore, the most relevant small mammal species for higher tier risk assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Diversity and Conservation of Terrestrial Small Mammals)

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11 pages, 933 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Animal Forest Mortality: Following the Consequences of a Gorgonian Coral Loss on a Mediterranean Coralligenous Assemblage

by Luigi Piazzi, Fabrizio Atzori, Nicoletta Cadoni, Maria Francesca Cinti, Francesca Frau, Arianna Pansini, Federico Pinna, Patrizia Stipcich and Giulia Ceccherelli

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030133 - 19 Mar 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3158

Abstract

In this work, the consequences of a local gorgonian coral mortality on the whole coralligenous assemblage were studied. A Before/After-Control/Impact sampling design was used: the structure of the coralligenous assemblage was compared before and after the gorgonian mortality event at the mortality site [...] Read more.

In this work, the consequences of a local gorgonian coral mortality on the whole coralligenous assemblage were studied. A Before/After-Control/Impact sampling design was used: the structure of the coralligenous assemblage was compared before and after the gorgonian mortality event at the mortality site and two control sites. At the mortality site, a relevant decrease in alpha and beta diversity occurred, with a shift from a stratified assemblage characterized by gorgonians and other invertebrates to an assemblage dominated by algal turfs; conversely, neither significant variations of the structure nor decrease in biodiversity were observed at the control sites. The assemblage shift involved the main taxa in different times: in autumn 2018, a large proportion of the plexaurid coral Paramuricea clavata died, but no significant changes were observed in the structure of the remaining assemblage. Then, in autumn 2019, algal turfs increased significantly and, one year later, the abundance of the gorgonian Eunicella cavolini and bryozoans collapsed. Although the mechanisms of the assemblage shift following gorgonian loss will remain uncertain and a cause-effect relationship cannot be derived, results suggest the need for detecting signs of gorgonian forests stress in monitoring programs, which should be considered early indicators of their condition. in the coralligenous monitoring programs for detecting any sign of gorgonian forests stress which should be considered an early indicator of the assemblage condition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity Conservation in Mediterranean Sea)

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14 pages, 2569 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Annelid Diversity: Historical Overview and Future Perspectives

by María Capa and Pat Hutchings

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030129 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 19822

Abstract

Annelida is a ubiquitous, common and diverse group of organisms, found in terrestrial, fresh waters and marine environments. Despite the large efforts put into resolving the evolutionary relationships of these and other Lophotrochozoa, and the delineation of the basal nodes within the group, [...] Read more.

Annelida is a ubiquitous, common and diverse group of organisms, found in terrestrial, fresh waters and marine environments. Despite the large efforts put into resolving the evolutionary relationships of these and other Lophotrochozoa, and the delineation of the basal nodes within the group, these are still unanswered. Annelida holds an enormous diversity of forms and biological strategies alongside a large number of species, following Arthropoda, Mollusca, Vertebrata and perhaps Platyhelminthes, among the species most rich in phyla within Metazoa. The number of currently accepted annelid species changes rapidly when taxonomic groups are revised due to synonymies and descriptions of a new species. The group is also experiencing a recent increase in species numbers as a consequence of the use of molecular taxonomy methods, which allows the delineation of the entities within species complexes. This review aims at succinctly reviewing the state-of-the-art of annelid diversity and summarizing the main systematic revisions carried out in the group. Moreover, it should be considered as the introduction to the papers that form this Special Issue on Systematics and Biodiversity of Annelids. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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65 pages, 14488 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

On the Diversity of Phyllodocida (Annelida: Errantia), with a Focus on Glyceridae, Goniadidae, Nephtyidae, Polynoidae, Sphaerodoridae, Syllidae, and the Holoplanktonic Families

by Daniel Martin, Maria Teresa Aguado, María-Ana Fernández Álamo, Temir Alanovich Britayev, Markus Böggemann, María Capa, Sarah Faulwetter, Marcelo Veronesi Fukuda, Conrad Helm, Monica Angelica Varella Petti, Ascensão Ravara and Marcos A. L. Teixeira

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030131 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 14678

Abstract

Phyllodocida is a clade of errantiate annelids characterized by having ventral sensory palps, anterior enlarged cirri, axial muscular proboscis, compound chaetae (if present) with a single ligament, and of lacking dorsolateral folds. Members of most families date back to the Carboniferous, although the [...] Read more.

Phyllodocida is a clade of errantiate annelids characterized by having ventral sensory palps, anterior enlarged cirri, axial muscular proboscis, compound chaetae (if present) with a single ligament, and of lacking dorsolateral folds. Members of most families date back to the Carboniferous, although the earliest fossil was dated from the Devonian. Phyllodocida holds 27 well-established and morphologically homogenous clades ranked as families, gathering more than 4600 currently accepted nominal species. Among them, Syllidae and Polynoidae are the most specious polychaete groups. Species of Phyllodocida are mainly found in the marine benthos, although a few inhabit freshwater, terrestrial and planktonic environments, and occur from intertidal to deep waters in all oceans. In this review, we (1) explore the current knowledge on species diversity trends (based on traditional species concept and molecular data), phylogeny, ecology, and geographic distribution for the whole group, (2) try to identify the main knowledge gaps, and (3) focus on selected families: Alciopidae, Goniadidae, Glyceridae, Iospilidae, Lopadorrhynchidae, Polynoidae, Pontodoridae, Nephtyidae, Sphaerodoridae, Syllidae, Tomopteridae, Typhloscolecidae, and Yndolaciidae. The highest species richness is concentrated in European, North American, and Australian continental shelves (reflecting a strong sampling bias). While most data come from shallow coastal and surface environments most world oceans are clearly under-studied. The overall trends indicate that new descriptions are constantly added through time and that less than 10% of the known species have molecular barcode information available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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73 pages, 8291 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Fanworms: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

by María Capa, Elena Kupriyanova, João Miguel de Matos Nogueira, Andreas Bick and María Ana Tovar-Hernández

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030130 - 17 Mar 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 9393

Abstract

Sabellida Levinsen, 1883 is a large morphologically uniform group of sedentary annelids commonly known as fanworms. These annelids live in tubes made either of calcareous carbonate or mucus with agglutinated sediment. They share the presence of an anterior crown consisting of radioles and [...] Read more.

Sabellida Levinsen, 1883 is a large morphologically uniform group of sedentary annelids commonly known as fanworms. These annelids live in tubes made either of calcareous carbonate or mucus with agglutinated sediment. They share the presence of an anterior crown consisting of radioles and the division of the body into thorax and abdomen marked by a chaetal and fecal groove inversion. This study synthesises the current state of knowledge about the diversity of fanworms in the broad sense (morphological, ecological, species richness), the species occurrences in the different biogeographic regions, highlights latest surveys, provides guidelines for identification of members of each group, and describe novel methodologies for species delimitation. As some members of this group are well-known introduced pests, we address information about these species and their current invasive status. In addition, an overview of the current evolutionary hypothesis and history of the classification of members of Sabellida is presented. The main aim of this review is to highlight the knowledge gaps to stimulate research in those directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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38 pages, 5245 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Endocranial Anatomy of the Giant Extinct Australian Mihirung Birds (Aves, Dromornithidae)

by Warren D. Handley and Trevor H. Worthy

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030124 - 15 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 12415

Abstract

Dromornithids are an extinct group of large flightless birds from the Cenozoic of Australia. Their record extends from the Eocene to the late Pleistocene. Four genera and eight species are currently recognised, with diversity highest in the Miocene. Dromornithids were once considered ratites, [...] Read more.

Dromornithids are an extinct group of large flightless birds from the Cenozoic of Australia. Their record extends from the Eocene to the late Pleistocene. Four genera and eight species are currently recognised, with diversity highest in the Miocene. Dromornithids were once considered ratites, but since the discovery of cranial elements, phylogenetic analyses have placed them near the base of the anseriforms or, most recently, resolved them as stem galliforms. In this study, we use morphometric methods to comprehensively describe dromornithid endocranial morphology for the first time, comparing Ilbandornis woodburnei and three species of Dromornis to one another and to four species of extant basal galloanseres. We reveal that major endocranial reconfiguration was associated with cranial foreshortening in a temporal series along the Dromornis lineage. Five key differences are evident between the brain morphology of Ilbandornis and Dromornis, relating to the medial wulst, the ventral eminence of the caudoventral telencephalon, and morphology of the metencephalon (cerebellum + pons). Additionally, dromornithid brains display distinctive dorsal (rostral position of the wulst), and ventral morphology (form of the maxillomandibular [V₂+V₃], glossopharyngeal [IX], and vagus [X] cranial nerves), supporting hypotheses that dromornithids are more closely related to basal galliforms than anseriforms. Functional interpretations suggest that dromornithids were specialised herbivores that likely possessed well-developed stereoscopic depth perception, were diurnal and targeted a soft browse trophic niche. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evolution and Palaeobiology of Flightless Birds)

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11 pages, 759 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Diversity of Dominant Soil Bacteria Increases with Warming Velocity at the Global Scale

by Yoshiaki Kanzaki and Kazuhiro Takemoto

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030120 - 12 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3884

Abstract

Understanding global soil bacterial diversity is important because of its role in maintaining a healthy global ecosystem. Given the effects of environmental changes (e.g., warming and human impact) on the diversity of animals and plants, effects on soil bacterial diversity are expected; however, [...] Read more.

Understanding global soil bacterial diversity is important because of its role in maintaining a healthy global ecosystem. Given the effects of environmental changes (e.g., warming and human impact) on the diversity of animals and plants, effects on soil bacterial diversity are expected; however, they have been poorly evaluated at the global scale to date. Thus, in this study, we focused on the dominant soil bacteria, which are likely critical drivers of key soil processes worldwide, and investigated the effects of warming velocity and human activities on their diversity. Using a global dataset of bacteria, we performed spatial analysis to evaluate the effects of warming velocity and human activities, while statistically controlling for the potentially confounding effects of current climate and geographic parameters with global climate and geographic data. We demonstrated that the diversity of the dominant soil bacteria was influenced globally, not only by the aridity index (dryness) and pH but also by warming velocity from the Last Glacial Maximum (21,000 years ago) to the present, showing significant increases. The increase in bacterial diversity with warming velocity was particularly significant in forests and grasslands. An effect of human activity was also observed, but it was secondary to warming velocity. These findings provide robust evidence and advance our understanding of the effects of environmental changes (particularly global warming) on soil bacterial diversity at the global scale. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Microbial Diversity and Culture Collections)

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24 pages, 2284 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Increasing Survival of Wild Macaw Chicks Using Foster Parents and Supplemental Feeding

by Gabriela Vigo-Trauco, Rony Garcia-Anleu and Donald J. Brightsmith

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030121 - 12 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7853

Abstract

The use of foster parents has great potential to help the recovery of highly endangered bird species. However, few studies have shown how to successfully use these techniques in wild populations. Scarlet Macaws (Ara macao macao) in Perú hatch 2–4 chicks [...] Read more.

The use of foster parents has great potential to help the recovery of highly endangered bird species. However, few studies have shown how to successfully use these techniques in wild populations. Scarlet Macaws (Ara macao macao) in Perú hatch 2–4 chicks per nest but about 24% of all chicks die of starvation and on average just 1.4 of them fledge per successful nest. In this study we develop and test new techniques to increase survival of wild Scarlet Macaw chicks by reducing chick starvation. We hypothesized that using foster parents would increase the survival of chicks at risk of starvation and increase overall reproductive success. Our results show that all relocated macaw chicks were successfully accepted by their foster parents (n = 28 chicks over 3 consecutive breeding seasons) and 89% of the relocated chicks fledged. Overall, we increased fledging success per available nest from 17% (2000 to 2016 average) to 25% (2017 to 2019) and decreased chick death by starvation from 19% to 4%. These findings show that the macaw foster parents technique and post relocation supplemental feeding provide a promising management tool to aid wild parrot population recovery in areas with low reproductive success. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of Parrots in Their Native and Non-Native Ranges)

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16 pages, 1239 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Long-Term Monitoring Reveals Differential Responses of Mussel and Host Fish Communities in a Biodiversity Hotspot

by Irene Sanchez Gonzalez, Garrett W. Hopper, Jamie Bucholz and Carla L. Atkinson

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030122 - 12 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3748

Abstract

Biodiversity hotspots can serve as protected areas that aid in species conservation. Long-term monitoring of multiple taxonomic groups within biodiversity hotspots can offer insight into factors influencing their dynamics. Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) and fish are highly diverse and imperiled groups of organisms with [...] Read more.

Biodiversity hotspots can serve as protected areas that aid in species conservation. Long-term monitoring of multiple taxonomic groups within biodiversity hotspots can offer insight into factors influencing their dynamics. Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionidae) and fish are highly diverse and imperiled groups of organisms with contrasting life histories that should influence their response to ecological factors associated with local and global change. Here we use historical and contemporary fish and mussel survey data to assess fish and mussel community changes over a 33 year period (1986–2019) and relationships between mussel abundance and their host fish abundance in Bogue Chitto Creek, a tributary of the Alabama River and a biodiversity hotspot. Mussel abundance declined by ~80% and community composition shifted, with eight species previously recorded not found in 2019, and a single individual of the endangered Pleurobema decisum. Fish abundances increased and life history strategies in the community appeared stable and there was no apparent relationship between mussel declines and abundance of host fish. Temporal variation in the proportion of life history traits composing mussel assemblages was also indicative of the disturbances specifically affecting the mussel community. However, changes and declines in mussel assemblages in Bogue Chitto Creek cannot be firmly attributed to any specific factor or events because of gaps in historical environmental and biological data. We believe that mobility differences contributed to differential responses of fish and mussel communities to stressors including habitat degradation, recent droughts and invasive species. Overall, our work indicates that monitoring biodiversity hotspots using hydrological measurements, standardized survey methods and monitoring invasive species abundance would better identify the effects of multiple and interactive stressors that impact disparate taxonomic groups in freshwater ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Freshwater Mollusk Conservation)

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19 pages, 4525 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Prevalence and Diversity of Avian Haemosporidians May Vary with Anthropogenic Disturbance in Tropical Habitats in Myanmar

by Jaime Muriel, Alfonso Marzal, Sergio Magallanes, Luz García-Longoria, Marcela Suarez-Rubio, Paul J. J. Bates, Htet Htet Lin, Aye Nyein Soe, Khin Swe Oo, Aung Aung Aye, Naw Dolly Wilbur, Ni Ni Win, Yupa Tin Soe, Khaing Khin Linn and Swen C. Renner

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030111 - 5 Mar 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3958

Abstract

Avian malaria and related haemosporidians (genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon) infect most clades of bird. Although these parasites are present in almost all continents, they have been irregularly studied across different geographical regions. Despite the high bird diversity in Asia, the [...] Read more.

Avian malaria and related haemosporidians (genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon) infect most clades of bird. Although these parasites are present in almost all continents, they have been irregularly studied across different geographical regions. Despite the high bird diversity in Asia, the diversity of avian haemosporidians in this region is largely unknown. Moreover, anthropogenic changes to habitats in tropical regions may have a profound impact on the overall composition of haemosporidian communities. Here we analyzed the diversity and host association of bird haemosporidians from areas with different degrees of anthropogenic disturbance in Myanmar, revealing an unexplored diversity of these parasites (27% of newly-discovered haemosporidian lineages, and 64% of new records of host–parasite assemblages) in these tropical environments. This newly discovered diversity will be valuable for detecting host range and transmission areas of haemosporidian parasites. We also found slightly higher haemosporidian prevalence and diversity in birds from paddy fields than in individuals from urban areas and hills, thus implying that human alteration of natural environments may affect the dynamics of vector-borne diseases. These outcomes provide valuable insights for biodiversity conservation management in threatened tropical ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bird Parasites)

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9 pages, 462 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

An Overview of DNA-Based Applications for the Assessment of Benthic Macroinvertebrates Biodiversity in Mediterranean Aquatic Ecosystems

by Eftychia Tzafesta, Francesco Zangaro, Valeria Specchia and Maurizio Pinna

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030112 - 5 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4728

Abstract

The loss of aquatic biodiversity is increasing at a rapid rate globally. There is a worldwide effort to protect, preserve and restore aquatic ecosystems. For efficient biodiversity monitoring and reliable management tools, comprehensive biodiversity data are required. The abundance and species diversity of [...] Read more.

The loss of aquatic biodiversity is increasing at a rapid rate globally. There is a worldwide effort to protect, preserve and restore aquatic ecosystems. For efficient biodiversity monitoring and reliable management tools, comprehensive biodiversity data are required. The abundance and species diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates are commonly used as indicators of the aquatic ecosystem condition. Currently, macroinvertebrate species biodiversity assessment is based on morpho-taxonomy, which could be enhanced by recent advances in DNA-based tools for species identification. In particular, DNA metabarcoding has the potential to identify simultaneously many different taxa in a pool of species and to improve aquatic biomonitoring significantly, especially for indicator species. This review is focused on the current state of DNA-based aquatic biomonitoring using benthic macroinvertebrates in the Mediterranean region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Restoration Ecology and Monitoring)

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15 pages, 4748 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Cetacean Strandings and Museum Collections: A Focus on Sicily Island Crossroads for Mediterranean Species

by Sabrina Lo Brutto, Andrea Calascibetta, Gianni Pavan and Gaspare Buffa

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030104 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3913

Abstract

The study examined the extent of the cetacean strandings in Italy, with a particular focus on Sicily Island. The paper aimed to contribute to the description of a pattern that contemplates the “regular and rare” cetacean species passage along the Sicilian coast. The [...] Read more.

The study examined the extent of the cetacean strandings in Italy, with a particular focus on Sicily Island. The paper aimed to contribute to the description of a pattern that contemplates the “regular and rare” cetacean species passage along the Sicilian coast. The estimate of marine cetacean strandings was extrapolated from the National Strandings Data Bank (BDS—Banca Dati Spiaggiamenti) and evaluated according to a subdivision in three coastal subregions: the Tyrrhenian sub-basin (northern Sicilian coast), the Ionian sub-basin (eastern Sicilian coast), and the Channel of Sicily (southern Sicilian coast). Along the Italian coast, more than 4880 stranding events have been counted in the period 1990–2019. Most of these were recorded in five Italian regions: Apulia, Sicily, Sardinia, Tuscany, and Calabria. Approximately 15% of the recorded strandings in Italy occurred on the Sicilian coast. In Sicily Island, 725 stranded cetaceans were recorded in 709 stranding events, resulting in approximately 20 carcasses every year; the total number of specimens identified to species level was 539. The distribution along the Sicilian coast was the following: 312 recorded in the Tyrrhenian sub-basin, 193 in the Ionian sub-basin, and 220 in the Channel of Sicily. Stenella coeruleoalba was the species that can be considered as the stable record along the time-lapse investigated, and some rare species have been recorded as well. The role of Sicily Island as a sentinel territory of the cetacean distribution for the central Mediterranean Sea and as a region receiving a marine resource suitable for the scientific research and cetological museum collections is discussed herein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Historical and Current Diversity Patterns of Mediterranean Marine Species)

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12 pages, 1599 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Origins of Six Species of Butterflies Migrating through Northeastern Mexico: New Insights from Stable Isotope (δ²H) Analyses and a Call for Documenting Butterfly Migrations

by Keith A. Hobson, Jackson W. Kusack and Blanca X. Mora-Alvarez

Diversity 2021, 13(3), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13030102 - 25 Feb 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3826

Abstract

Determining migratory connectivity within and among diverse taxa is crucial to their conservation. Insect migrations involve millions of individuals and are often spectacular. However, in general, virtually nothing is known about their structure. With anthropogenically induced global change, we risk losing most of [...] Read more.

Determining migratory connectivity within and among diverse taxa is crucial to their conservation. Insect migrations involve millions of individuals and are often spectacular. However, in general, virtually nothing is known about their structure. With anthropogenically induced global change, we risk losing most of these migrations before they are even described. We used stable hydrogen isotope (δ²H) measurements of wings of seven species of butterflies (Libytheana carinenta, Danaus gilippus, Phoebis sennae, Asterocampa leilia, Euptoieta claudia, Euptoieta hegesia, and Zerene cesonia) salvaged as roadkill when migrating in fall through a narrow bottleneck in northeast Mexico. These data were used to depict the probabilistic origins in North America of six species, excluding the largely local E. hegesia. We determined evidence for long-distance migration in four species (L. carinenta, E. claudia, D. glippus, Z. cesonia) and present evidence for panmixia (Z. cesonia), chain (Libytheana carinenta), and leapfrog (Danaus gilippus) migrations in three species. Our investigation underlines the utility of the stable isotope approach to quickly establish migratory origins and connectivity in butterflies and other insect taxa, especially if they can be sampled at migratory bottlenecks. We make the case for a concerted effort to atlas butterfly migrations using the stable isotope approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Stable Isotope Ecology)

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23 pages, 4037 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Annelids in Extreme Aquatic Environments: Diversity, Adaptations and Evolution

by Christopher J. Glasby, Christer Erséus and Patrick Martin

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020098 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 16239

Abstract

We review the variety of morphological, physiological and behavioral modifications that annelids have acquired to cope with environments either unsuitable for, or on the limits of, survival for most animals. We focus on polychaetes (excluding sipunculans and echiurans) and clitellates (oligochaetes and leeches) [...] Read more.

We review the variety of morphological, physiological and behavioral modifications that annelids have acquired to cope with environments either unsuitable for, or on the limits of, survival for most animals. We focus on polychaetes (excluding sipunculans and echiurans) and clitellates (oligochaetes and leeches) and source information mostly from the primary literature. We identified many modifications common to both polychaetes and clitellates, and others that are specific to one or the other group. For example, certain land-adapted polychaetes show reduction in nuchal organs, epidermal ciliation and receptor cells, and other coastal polychaetes use adhesive glands and glue-reinforced tubes to maintain position in surf zones, while oligochaetes, with their simple body plans, appear to be ‘pre-adapted’ to life underground. Modifications common to both groups include the ability to construct protective cocoons, make cryoprotective substances such as antifreeze and heat shock proteins, develop gills, transform their bodies into a home for symbiotic chemoautotrophic bacteria, metabolize contaminants, and display avoidance behaviors. Convergent evolution in both directions has enabled annelids to transition from salt water to freshwater, sea to land via beaches, freshwater to soil, and surface water to subterranean water. A superficially simple worm-like body and a mostly benthic/burrowing lifestyle has facilitated radiation into every conceivable environment, making annelids among the most common and diverse animal groups on the planet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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14 pages, 1857 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Diverse Assemblage of Fungal Endophytes from Orchids in Madagascar Linked to Abiotic Factors and Seasonality

by Kazutomo Yokoya, Lawrence W. Zettler, Jake Bell, Jonathan P. Kendon, Alison S. Jacob, Emily Schofield, Landy Rajaovelona and Viswambharan Sarasan

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020096 - 23 Feb 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4322

Abstract

The inselbergs of the Central Highlands of Madagascar are one of many ‘micro-hotspots’ of biodiversity on the island, particularly for Orchidaceae. In this region are several genera that have a large number of endemic species that are in serious decline or edging towards [...] Read more.

The inselbergs of the Central Highlands of Madagascar are one of many ‘micro-hotspots’ of biodiversity on the island, particularly for Orchidaceae. In this region are several genera that have a large number of endemic species that are in serious decline or edging towards extinction. Studies relating to diversity of orchids and their fungal partners (both mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal root associates) deserve more attention, as climate change and human induced decline in resilience of species in the wild is at an all-time high. Identification of mycorrhizal fungi (MF) via conventional seed baited-protocorms has limitations for large scale studies and its application for time-bound conservation projects. The paper describes the value of understanding fungal diversity in the roots of orchids at different stages of maturity. The first part of the study was a preliminary investigation mainly to identify culturable Rhizoctonia endophytes, and the second part looked at all life forms of available taxa together with associated soil characteristics. We isolated and identified 19 putative MF from 18 of the 50 taxa spread over an area of 250 sq. km, covering three life forms, growth phases of the orchid taxa, and habitat types. In the rest of the taxa, we were unable to detect any putative MF, but had varying numbers of non-mycorrhizal endophytes. We also found that diversity of putative MF was higher in plants from soils with the lowest P levels recorded. Putative mycorrhizal OTUs were predominantly from the Tulasnella lineage, followed by Ceratobasidium and Serendipita. Within a small subset of samples, a difference in colonised endophytes depending on the collection season was observed. In vitro germination studies using 10 OTUs of mycorrhizal fungi in 14 orchid species showed mostly generalist associations. When orchid seed and fungal sources were studied irrespective of habitat, life form, and distance from each other (orchid seed and fungal source), compatibility for symbiotic seed germination was observed in most cases. Issues with the identification of compatible MF and symbiotic system of seed germination are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Ecology and Diversity of Orchids)

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18 pages, 2695 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Land Use Effects on Airborne Bacterial Communities Are Evident in Both Near-Surface and Higher-Altitude Air

by Allison M. Spring, Kenneth D. Domingue, Thomas V. Kerber, Margaret M. Mooney, Rebecca L. Hale, Kristina M. Lemmer and Kathryn M. Docherty

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020085 - 18 Feb 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3010

Abstract

Land use influences the composition of near-surface airborne bacterial communities, and bacteria can be transported through the atmosphere at global scales. The atmosphere mixes vertically, but rigorously assessing whether the effects of land use on atmospheric communities extends to higher altitudes requires examining [...] Read more.

Land use influences the composition of near-surface airborne bacterial communities, and bacteria can be transported through the atmosphere at global scales. The atmosphere mixes vertically, but rigorously assessing whether the effects of land use on atmospheric communities extends to higher altitudes requires examining communities from multiple altitudes collected at a stable location and timeframe. In this study, we collected near-surface (<2 m) and higher-altitude (150 m) air samples from three sites in an agricultural/developed location and a forested/undeveloped location. We used bacterial 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to compare communities and predict functionality by altitude. Higher-altitude and near-surface communities did not differ in composition within each location. Communities collected above the undeveloped location were equally variable at both altitudes; higher-altitude samples from the developed location predominantly contained Firmicutes and were less variable than near-surface samples. We also compared airborne taxa to those present in soil and snow. Communities from higher-altitude samples above the developed location contained fewer overlapping taxa with soil and snow sources, and overlapping Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) among the three sources differed by location. Our results suggest that land use affects the composition of both near-surface and higher-altitude airborne bacterial communities and, therefore, may influence broad bacterial dispersal patterns. This small-scale pilot study provides a framework for simultaneously examining local and regional airborne microbial communities that can be applied to larger studies or studies using different types of samplers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Ecology in the Atmosphere)

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58 pages, 25268 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Interstitial Annelida

by Katrine Worsaae, Alexandra Kerbl, Maikon Di Domenico, Brett C. Gonzalez, Nicolas Bekkouche and Alejandro Martínez

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020077 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6827

Abstract

Members of the following marine annelid families are found almost exclusively in the interstitial environment and are highly adapted to move between sand grains, relying mostly on ciliary locomotion: Apharyngtidae n. fam., Dinophilidae, Diurodrilidae, Nerillidae, Lobatocerebridae, Parergodrilidae, Polygordiidae, Protodrilidae, Protodriloididae, Psammodrilidae and Saccocirridae. [...] Read more.

Members of the following marine annelid families are found almost exclusively in the interstitial environment and are highly adapted to move between sand grains, relying mostly on ciliary locomotion: Apharyngtidae n. fam., Dinophilidae, Diurodrilidae, Nerillidae, Lobatocerebridae, Parergodrilidae, Polygordiidae, Protodrilidae, Protodriloididae, Psammodrilidae and Saccocirridae. This article provides a review of the evolution, systematics, and diversity of these families, with the exception of Parergodrilidae, which was detailed in the review of Orbiniida by Meca, Zhadan, and Struck within this Special Issue. While several of the discussed families have previously only been known by a few described species, recent surveys inclusive of molecular approaches have increased the number of species, showing that all of the aforementioned families exhibit a high degree of cryptic diversity shadowed by a limited number of recognizable morphological traits. This is a challenge for studies of the evolution, taxonomy, and diversity of interstitial families as well as for their identification and incorporation into ecological surveys. By compiling a comprehensive and updated review on these interstitial families, we hope to promote new studies on their intriguing evolutionary histories, adapted life forms and high and hidden diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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18 pages, 2793 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Avian Haemosporidian Diversity on Sardinia: A First General Assessment for the Insular Mediterranean

by Irene Pellegrino, Luca Ilahiane, Giovanni Boano, Marco Cucco, Marco Pavia, Heather L. Prestridge and Gary Voelker

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020075 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3544

Abstract

The Western Palearctic is one of the most investigated regions for avian haemosporidian parasites (Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon), yet geographic gaps in our regional knowledge remain. Here, we report the first haemosporidian screening of the breeding birds from Sardinia (the [...] Read more.

The Western Palearctic is one of the most investigated regions for avian haemosporidian parasites (Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon), yet geographic gaps in our regional knowledge remain. Here, we report the first haemosporidian screening of the breeding birds from Sardinia (the second-largest Mediterranean Island and a biodiversity hotspot), and the first for the insular Mediterranean in general. We examined the occurrence of haemosporidians by amplifying their mtDNA cytb gene in 217 breeding birds, belonging to 32 species. The total prevalence of infected birds was 55.3%, and of the 116 haplotypes recovered, 84 were novel. Despite the high number of novel lineages, phylogenetic analysis did not highlight Sardinia-specific clades; instead, some Sardinian lineages were more closely related to lineages previously recovered from continental Europe. Host-parasite network analysis indicated a specialized host-parasite community. Binomial generalized linear models (GLMs), performed at the community level, suggested an elevational effect on haemosporidian occurrence probability (negative for Haemoproteus; positive for Leucocytozoon) likely due to differences in the abundance of insect vectors at different elevations. Furthermore, a GLM revealed that sedentary birds showed a higher probability of being infected by novel haplotypes and long-distance migrants showed a lower probability of novel haplotype infection. We hypothesize that the high diversity of haemosporidians is linked to the isolation of breeding bird populations on Sardinia. This study adds to the growing knowledge on haemosporidians lineage diversity and distribution in insular environments and presents new insights on potential host-parasite associations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bird Parasites)

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18 pages, 402 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Effects of Human Disturbance on Terrestrial Apex Predators

by Andrés Ordiz, Malin Aronsson, Jens Persson, Ole-Gunnar Støen, Jon E. Swenson and Jonas Kindberg

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020068 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 9143

Abstract

The effects of human disturbance spread over virtually all ecosystems and ecological communities on Earth. In this review, we focus on the effects of human disturbance on terrestrial apex predators. We summarize their ecological role in nature and how they respond to different [...] Read more.

The effects of human disturbance spread over virtually all ecosystems and ecological communities on Earth. In this review, we focus on the effects of human disturbance on terrestrial apex predators. We summarize their ecological role in nature and how they respond to different sources of human disturbance. Apex predators control their prey and smaller predators numerically and via behavioral changes to avoid predation risk, which in turn can affect lower trophic levels. Crucially, reducing population numbers and triggering behavioral responses are also the effects that human disturbance causes to apex predators, which may in turn influence their ecological role. Some populations continue to be at the brink of extinction, but others are partially recovering former ranges, via natural recolonization and through reintroductions. Carnivore recovery is both good news for conservation and a challenge for management, particularly when recovery occurs in human-dominated landscapes. Therefore, we conclude by discussing several management considerations that, adapted to local contexts, may favor the recovery of apex predator populations and their ecological functions in nature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Human Disturbance on Ecological Communities)

17 pages, 4152 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Analysis of Italian Plant Agrobiodiversity Databases Reveals That Hilly and Sub-Mountain Areas Are Hotspots of Herbaceous Landraces

by Luca Giupponi, Davide Pedrali, Valeria Leoni, Alessia Rodari and Annamaria Giorgi

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020070 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5063

Abstract

Landraces are an agri-food and historical-cultural heritage but are undergoing losses worldwide. Italy is taking action to counteract this problem by following European guidelines. One of the most important measures is the Agrobiodiversity National Register (ANR), but 12 Italian regions currently appear without [...] Read more.

Landraces are an agri-food and historical-cultural heritage but are undergoing losses worldwide. Italy is taking action to counteract this problem by following European guidelines. One of the most important measures is the Agrobiodiversity National Register (ANR), but 12 Italian regions currently appear without any landraces and around 80% of the landraces listed are trees, with less detailed data on herbaceous species. The aim of this study is to investigate the situation for Italian herbaceous landraces preserved on farms (in situ) by merging and analyzing data contained in the main databases on plant agrobiodiversity in Italy. Data were georeferenced, organized by botanic families and Italian regions, and analyzed by GIS and R. A total of 1615 herbaceous landraces were found (versus the 416 recorded in the ANR). Poaceae, Fabaceae, and Solanaceae together comprise 70% of all herbaceous landraces and are mostly preserved/grown in areas between 150 and 800 m a.s.l. Some hilly and sub-mountain areas of the Apennines and the Alps are hotspots of herbaceous landraces due to anthropic and environmental factors. The results of this research will be useful to enrich the ANR and trigger actions of characterization, conservation, and promotion of these plant resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Diversity)

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19 pages, 6211 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Genesis, Evolution, and Genetic Diversity of the Hexaploid, Narrow Endemic Centaurea tentudaica

by Lucía D. Moreyra, Francisco Márquez, Alfonso Susanna, Núria Garcia-Jacas, Francisco María Vázquez and Jordi López-Pujol

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020072 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3695

Abstract

Within the genus Centaurea L., polyploidy is very common, and it is believed that, as to all angiosperms, it was key in the history of its diversification and evolution. Centaurea tentudaica is a hexaploid from subsect. Chamaecyanus of unknown origin. In this study, [...] Read more.

Within the genus Centaurea L., polyploidy is very common, and it is believed that, as to all angiosperms, it was key in the history of its diversification and evolution. Centaurea tentudaica is a hexaploid from subsect. Chamaecyanus of unknown origin. In this study, we examined the possible autopolyploid or allopolyploid origin using allozymes and sequences of three molecular markers: nuclear-ribosomic region ETS, and low-copy genes AGT1 and PgiC. We also included three species geographically and morphologically close to C. tentudaica: C. amblensis, C. galianoi, and C. ornata. Neighbor-Net and Bayesian analyses show a close relationship between C. amblensis and C. tentudaica and no relationship to any of the other species, which suggest that C. tentudaica is an autopolyploid of C. amblensis. Allozyme banding pattern also supports the autopolyploidy hypothesis and shows high levels of genetic diversity in the polyploid, which could suggest multiple origins by recurrent crosses of tetraploid and diploid cytotypes of C. amblensis. Environmental niche modeling was used to analyze the distribution of the possible parental species during the present, Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), Last Interglacial Period (LIG), and Penultimate Glacial Maximum (PGM) environmental conditions. Supporting the molecular suggestions that C. tentudaica originated from C. amblensis, environmental niche modeling confirms that past distribution of C. amblensis overlapped with the distribution of C. tentudaica. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation Genetics and Biogeography of Seed Plant Species)

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54 pages, 7357 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Current State of Eunicida (Annelida) Systematics and Biodiversity

by Joana Zanol, Luis F. Carrera-Parra, Tatiana Menchini Steiner, Antonia Cecilia Z. Amaral, Helena Wiklund, Ascensão Ravara and Nataliya Budaeva

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020074 - 9 Feb 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 10354

Abstract

In this study, we analyze the current state of knowledge on extant Eunicida systematics, morphology, feeding, life history, habitat, ecology, distribution patterns, local diversity and exploitation. Eunicida is an order of Errantia annelids characterized by the presence of ventral mandibles and dorsal maxillae [...] Read more.

In this study, we analyze the current state of knowledge on extant Eunicida systematics, morphology, feeding, life history, habitat, ecology, distribution patterns, local diversity and exploitation. Eunicida is an order of Errantia annelids characterized by the presence of ventral mandibles and dorsal maxillae in a ventral muscularized pharynx. The origin of Eunicida dates back to the late Cambrian, and the peaks of jaw morphology diversity and number of families are in the Ordovician. Species richness is heterogeneous among the seven recent families, with more than half of the valid species belonging to the Eunicidae + Onuphidae clade, one of the latest clades to diverge. Eunicidans inhabit soft and hard substrates from intertidal to deep waters in all oceans. The few freshwater species are restricted to Histriobdellidae, a family exclusively commensal/parasite of crustaceans. The reproductive biology, development and ecology of most families are poorly known and the information available suggests low dispersal ability. However, all families have records of widely distributed species. Scrutiny of these wide distributions has often revealed the presence of exotic species or more than one species. The exploration of the deep-sea and of new habitats has led to recent descriptions of new species. Furthermore, the revision of type specimens, the examination of new morphological features and the use of molecular data have revealed hidden biodiversity under unjustified synonyms, poor understanding of morphological features and incomplete descriptions. Molecular studies are still very few or nonexistent for the families Histriobdellidae, Hartmaniellidae, Lumbrineridae and Oenonidae. The integration of new methodologies for morphological and molecular study, along with information on biological and ecological traits appears to be the path to improve the knowledge on the diversity of Eunicida. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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27 pages, 4614 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact to Coral Reef Populations at Hā‘ena and Pila‘a, Kaua‘i, Following a Record 2018 Freshwater Flood Event

by Ku’ulei S. Rodgers, Matthew P. Stefanak, Anita O. Tsang, Justin J. Han, Andrew T. Graham and Yuko O. Stender

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020066 - 5 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3404

Abstract

Many corals and reef-dwelling organisms are susceptible to the impacts of storm events, which are typically characterized by large inputs of freshwater, sediment, and nutrients. The majority of storm effects are focused on shallow, nearshore reef flats, as low salinity and sedimentation tend [...] Read more.

Many corals and reef-dwelling organisms are susceptible to the impacts of storm events, which are typically characterized by large inputs of freshwater, sediment, and nutrients. The majority of storm effects are focused on shallow, nearshore reef flats, as low salinity and sedimentation tend to dissipate with depth and distance from shore. In April 2018, record rainfall on the northern coast of Kaua‘i caused extensive flooding and landslides, introducing large amounts of freshwater and sediment into nearshore reefs. Using benthic and fish transects from 2016–2019 and temperature, sediment, and rainfall data gathered pre- and post-flood, this study aimed to quantify and explicate the effects of flooding on the various biotic populations of two reef habitats at Pila‘a and Hā‘ena, Kaua‘i. Results from the shallow Pila‘a reef suggest sediment and freshwater-associated declines in mean urchin abundance (−52.0%) and increases in mean coral bleaching (+54.5%) at the flood-prone eastern sector. Additionally, decreases in mean urchin (−65.7%) and fish (−42.3%) populations were observed at shallow Hā‘ena transects, but not deep sites, supporting the occurrence of depth-specific affliction. Multivariate community-level analyses affirmed much of these results, showing a significant shift in community structure before and after the flood at both Pila‘a and Hā‘ena. The outcomes of this study are pertinent to strategic design and solution development by local aquatic resource managers, especially as anthropogenic climate change continues to increase the frequency, duration, and intensity of storm events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coral Reef Ecology and Biodiversity)

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20 pages, 810 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

An Overview of the Helminths of Moor Frog Rana arvalis Nilsson, 1842 (Amphibia: Anura) in the Volga Basin

by Igor V. Chikhlyaev and Alexander B. Ruchin

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020061 - 4 Feb 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3149

Abstract

This is the first review of the helminth fauna of the moor frog Rana arvalis Nilsson, 1842 from the Volga river basin (Russia). The article summarizes the authors’ and literature data on the helminthic fauna of this species. The method of complete helminthological [...] Read more.

This is the first review of the helminth fauna of the moor frog Rana arvalis Nilsson, 1842 from the Volga river basin (Russia). The article summarizes the authors’ and literature data on the helminthic fauna of this species. The method of complete helminthological dissection was used. Thirthy-eight helminth species were recorded from three classes: Cestoda (1), Trematoda (28), and Chromadorea (9). Nine helminth species are new to the moor frog in Russia: trematodes Gorgodera varsoviensis Sinitzin, 1905, Strigea falconis Szidat, 1928, larvae, Neodiplostomum spathoides Dubois, 1937, larvae, Tylodelphys excavata (Rudolphi, 1803), larvae, Pharyngostomum cordatum (Diesing, 1850), larvae, Astiotrema monticelli Stossich, 1904, larvae and Encyclometra colubrimurorum (Rudolphi, 1819), larvae, nematodes Strongyloides spiralis Grabda-Kazubska, 1978 and Icosiella neglecta (Diesing, 1851). The cestode Spirometra erinacei (Rudolphi, 1918), larvae were observed of this amphibian species in the Volga basin for the first time. The nematodes Rhabdias bufonis, Oswaldocruzia filiformis, Cosmocerca ornata and the trematode Haplometra cylindracea form the core of the helminth fauna of the moor frog. Information on species of helminths includes systematic position, localization, areas of detection, type and scheme of life cycle, geographical distribution, and degree of specificity to host amphibians. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity and Ecological Impact of Parasites on Amphibians and Reptiles)

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8 pages, 251 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceOpinion

Reducing the Extinction Risk of Populations Threatened by Infectious Diseases

by Gael L. Glassock, Catherine E. Grueber, Katherine Belov and Carolyn J. Hogg

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020063 - 4 Feb 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5126

Abstract

Extinction risk is increasing for a range of species due to a variety of threats, including disease. Emerging infectious diseases can cause severe declines in wild animal populations, increasing population fragmentation and reducing gene flow. Small, isolated, host populations may lose adaptive potential [...] Read more.

Extinction risk is increasing for a range of species due to a variety of threats, including disease. Emerging infectious diseases can cause severe declines in wild animal populations, increasing population fragmentation and reducing gene flow. Small, isolated, host populations may lose adaptive potential and become more susceptible to extinction due to other threats. Management of the genetic consequences of disease-induced population decline is often necessary. Whilst disease threats need to be addressed, they can be difficult to mitigate. Actions implemented to conserve the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), which has suffered decline to the deadly devil facial tumour disease (DFTD), exemplify how genetic management can be used to reduce extinction risk in populations threatened by disease. Supplementation is an emerging conservation technique that may benefit populations threatened by disease by enabling gene flow and conserving their adaptive potential through genetic restoration. Other candidate species may benefit from genetic management via supplementation but concerns regarding outbreeding depression may prevent widespread incorporation of this technique into wildlife disease management. However, existing knowledge can be used to identify populations that would benefit from supplementation where risk of outbreeding depression is low. For populations threatened by disease and, in situations where disease eradication is not an option, wildlife managers should consider genetic management to buffer the host species against inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation Genetics for Management of Threatened Plant and Animal Species)

32 pages, 8370 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Terebelliformia-Recent Developments and Future Directions

by Pat Hutchings, Orlemir Carrerette, João M. M. Nogueira, Stephane Hourdez and Nicolas Lavesque

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020060 - 3 Feb 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5044

Abstract

Terebelliformia comprises a large group of sedentary polychaetes which live from the intertidal to the deep sea. The majority live in tubes and are selective deposit feeders. This study synthesises the current knowledge of this group, including their distribution, in the different biogeographic [...] Read more.

Terebelliformia comprises a large group of sedentary polychaetes which live from the intertidal to the deep sea. The majority live in tubes and are selective deposit feeders. This study synthesises the current knowledge of this group, including their distribution, in the different biogeographic regions. We highlight the new methodologies being used to describe them and the resolution of species complexes occurring in the group. The main aim of this review is to highlight the knowledge gaps and to stimulate research in those directions, which will allow for knowledge of their distribution and abundances to be used by ecologists and managers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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15 pages, 1822 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Digging Deeper into the Ecology of Subterranean Ants: Diversity and Niche Partitioning across Two Continents

by Mickal Houadria and Florian Menzel

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020053 - 29 Jan 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2776

Abstract

Soil fauna is generally understudied compared to above-ground arthropods, and ants are no exception. Here, we compared a primary and a secondary forest each on two continents using four different sampling methods. Winkler sampling, pitfalls, and four types of above- and below-ground baits [...] Read more.

Soil fauna is generally understudied compared to above-ground arthropods, and ants are no exception. Here, we compared a primary and a secondary forest each on two continents using four different sampling methods. Winkler sampling, pitfalls, and four types of above- and below-ground baits (dead, crushed insects; melezitose; living termites; living mealworms/grasshoppers) were applied on four plots (4 × 4 grid points) on each site. Although less diverse than Winkler samples and pitfalls, subterranean baits provided a remarkable ant community. Our baiting system provided a large dataset to systematically quantify strata and dietary specialisation in tropical rainforest ants. Compared to above-ground baits, 10–28% of the species at subterranean baits were overall more common (or unique to) below ground, indicating a fauna that was truly specialised to this stratum. Species turnover was particularly high in the primary forests, both concerning above-ground and subterranean baits and between grid points within a site. This suggests that secondary forests are more impoverished, especially concerning their subterranean fauna. Although subterranean ants rarely displayed specific preferences for a bait type, they were in general more specialised than above-ground ants; this was true for entire communities, but also for the same species if they foraged in both strata. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Biogeography and Community Ecology of Ants)

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15 pages, 2571 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

How Many Sipunculan Species Are Hiding in Our Oceans?

by Anja Schulze and Gisele Y. Kawauchi

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020043 - 24 Jan 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9249

Abstract

Sipuncula, long considered a separate phylum, are now commonly included in the Annelida based on phylogenomic analyses. The sipunculan body consists of an unsegmented trunk and a retractable introvert, usually with a set of tentacles at its anterior end. Unlike other annelids, they [...] Read more.

Sipuncula, long considered a separate phylum, are now commonly included in the Annelida based on phylogenomic analyses. The sipunculan body consists of an unsegmented trunk and a retractable introvert, usually with a set of tentacles at its anterior end. Unlike other annelids, they have no chaetae, but the introvert is often adorned with proteinaceous hooks that can be important taxonomic characters. Other external taxonomic characters include the tentacles (number, shape and arrangement), body papillae and, in some cases, hardened shields, as well as length ratios. Many species require dissection for correct identification to reveal internal characteristics, such as introvert retractor muscles, nephridia and contractile vessels. Here we summarize the state of the current knowledge of species diversity in sipunculans. We emphasize molecular studies, conducted over the past two decades, that have revealed multiple complexes of cryptic or pseudocryptic species. It has become obvious that diversity is significantly higher than the current taxonomic scheme accounts for, but formal species descriptions are lagging behind. Although the major branches in the sipunculan phylogeny have become increasingly consolidated, the internal relationships within most branches are still in flux. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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44 pages, 17099 KiB

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On the Systematics and Biodiversity of the Palaeoannelida

by Julio Parapar, Kate Mortimer, María Capa and Juan Moreira

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020041 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5141

Abstract

Palaeoannelida Weigert and Bleidorn, 2016 is an old clade branching off at the base of the Annelida radiation. It includes two morphologically and ecological divergent groups of sedentary burrowers and tube-dwellers: Magelonidae Cunningham and Ramage, 1888, and Oweniidae Rioja, 1917. Magelonids are characterised [...] Read more.

Palaeoannelida Weigert and Bleidorn, 2016 is an old clade branching off at the base of the Annelida radiation. It includes two morphologically and ecological divergent groups of sedentary burrowers and tube-dwellers: Magelonidae Cunningham and Ramage, 1888, and Oweniidae Rioja, 1917. Magelonids are characterised by a flattened, shovel-shaped prostomium and a pair of ventral papillated palps. Oweniids have simplified bodies lacking parapodia or appendages and are easily distinguished by the presence of oval patches of packed uncini, each with two distal curved teeth. The present review aims to summarise available information about the diversity of forms and life strategies displayed in the group, providing some guidelines for species identification and the techniques commonly used for their study. In addition, the assumed geographic distributions of some taxa are critically discussed. A brief introduction about the evolutionary relationships, systematics, and taxonomic history is given for both Magelonidae and Oweniidae. The motivation of this review is to highlight the main knowledge gaps from a taxonomic, methodological, and geographic perspective, aiming at stimulating further research into members of this clade. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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13 pages, 549 KiB

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Cryptic Clitellata: Molecular Species Delimitation of Clitellate Worms (Annelida): An Overview

by Svante Martinsson and Christer Erséus

Diversity 2021, 13(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13020036 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4951

Abstract

Methods for species delimitation using molecular data have developed greatly and have become a staple in systematic studies of clitellate worms. Here we give a historical overview of the data and methods used to delimit clitellates from the mid-1970s to today. We also [...] Read more.

Methods for species delimitation using molecular data have developed greatly and have become a staple in systematic studies of clitellate worms. Here we give a historical overview of the data and methods used to delimit clitellates from the mid-1970s to today. We also discuss the taxonomical treatment of the cryptic species, including the recommendation that cryptic species, as far as possible, should be described and named. Finally, we discuss the prospects and further development of the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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12 pages, 2375 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Occupancy of the American Three-Toed Woodpecker in a Heavily-Managed Boreal Forest of Eastern Canada

by Vincent Lamarre and Junior A. Tremblay

Diversity 2021, 13(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13010035 - 19 Jan 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2953

Abstract

The southern extent of the boreal forest in North America has experienced intensive human disturbance in recent decades. Among these, forest harvesting leads to the substantial loss of late-successional stands that include key habitat attributes for several avian species. The American Three-toed Woodpecker, [...] Read more.

The southern extent of the boreal forest in North America has experienced intensive human disturbance in recent decades. Among these, forest harvesting leads to the substantial loss of late-successional stands that include key habitat attributes for several avian species. The American Three-toed Woodpecker, Picoides dorsalis, is associated with continuous old spruce forests in the eastern part of its range. In this study, we assessed the influence of habitat characteristics at different scales on the occupancy of American Three-toed Woodpecker in a heavily-managed boreal landscape of northeastern Canada, and we inferred species occupancy at the regional scale. We conducted 185 playback stations over two breeding seasons and modelled the occupancy of the species while taking into account the probability of detection. American Three-toed Woodpecker occupancy was lower in stands with large areas recently clear-cut, and higher in landscapes with large extents of old-growth forest dominated by black spruce. At the regional scale, areas with high probability of occupancy were scarce and mostly within protected areas. Habitat requirements of the American Three-toed Woodpecker during the breeding season, coupled with overall low occupancy rate in our study area, challenge its long-term sustainability in such heavily managed landscapes. Additionally, the scarcity of areas of high probability of occupancy in the region suggests that the ecological role of old forest outside protected areas could be compromised. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Boreal Bird Ecology, Management and Conservation)

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16 pages, 2582 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Threats Posed to the Rediscovered and Rare Salvia ceratophylloides Ard. (Lamiaceae) by Borer and Seed Feeder Insect Species

by Carmelo Peter Bonsignore, Valentina Lucia Astrid Laface, Gregorio Vono, Rita Marullo, Carmelo Maria Musarella and Giovanni Spampinato

Diversity 2021, 13(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13010033 - 16 Jan 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3762

Abstract

The effects of herbivorous insects on a plant population are not always well tolerated. This is especially true if the herbivorous actions are directed toward rare plant species. Salvia ceratophylloides Ard. is a rare endemism of southern Italy. Observations of the plants in [...] Read more.

The effects of herbivorous insects on a plant population are not always well tolerated. This is especially true if the herbivorous actions are directed toward rare plant species. Salvia ceratophylloides Ard. is a rare endemism of southern Italy. Observations of the plants in situ revealed that many of them were under severe stress and did not produce seeds. Therefore, to find out which factors affect the reproductive activity as a whole, an observational study was carried out. We found bottom-up and top-down effects on plant health and reproduction associated with herbivorous action. Squamapion elongatum (Coleoptera, Curculionoidea, Apionidae), in all monitored sites, infested plants non-uniformly but was able to threaten the health condition, flowering, and seed production of sage by digging tunnels into the sage branches (bottom-up action), and then secondarily by seed feeder Systole salvia Zerova (Hymenoptera, Eurytomidae) predating sage seeds (top-down action). Mainly, chalcid parasitoid wasps such as Trichomalus spp. (Hymenoptera, Pteromalidae), as well as Eupelmus vesicularis and E. muellneri (Hymenoptera, Eupelmidae), limited the herbivorous S. elongatum population and the seed herbivore S. salviae emerged with its parasitoid Ormyrus diffinis (Hymenoptera, Ormyridae). Overall, this study showed how ecological interactions among herbivores, their host, and their natural enemies act on this sage species in all sites investigated. Among the herbivores, mainly S. elongatum affected this rare sage species, which should be taken into consideration, especially in the formulation of biological control solutions and for improving operating practice aimed at reproducing the species. This study provides the molecular characterization of the herbivorous species involved, in order to support future projects to evaluate the intra- and interspecific genetic variability of insects, their evolutionary relationships, and phylogeny studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity of Insect)

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14 pages, 1988 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Role of Carrion in the Landscapes of Fear and Disgust: A Review and Prospects

by Marcos Moleón and José A. Sánchez-Zapata

Diversity 2021, 13(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13010028 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4562

Abstract

Animal behavior is greatly shaped by the ‘landscape of fear’, induced by predation risk, and the equivalent ‘landscape of disgust’, induced by parasitism or infection risk. However, the role that carrion may play in these landscapes of peril has been largely overlooked. Here, [...] Read more.

Animal behavior is greatly shaped by the ‘landscape of fear’, induced by predation risk, and the equivalent ‘landscape of disgust’, induced by parasitism or infection risk. However, the role that carrion may play in these landscapes of peril has been largely overlooked. Here, we aim to emphasize that animal carcasses likely represent ubiquitous hotspots for both predation and infection risk, thus being an outstanding paradigm of how predation and parasitism pressures can concur in space and time. By conducting a literature review, we highlight the manifold inter- and intra-specific interactions linked to carrion via predation and parasitism risks, which may affect not only scavengers, but also non-scavengers. However, we identified major knowledge gaps, as reviewed articles were highly biased towards fear, terrestrial environments, vertebrates, and behavioral responses. Based on the reviewed literature, we provide a conceptual framework on the main fear- and disgust-based interaction pathways associated with carrion resources. This framework may be used to formulate predictions about how the landscape of fear and disgust around carcasses might influence animals’ individual behavior and ecological processes, from population to ecosystem functioning. We encourage ecologists, evolutionary biologists, epidemiologists, forensic scientists, and conservation biologists to explore the promising research avenues associated with the scary and disgusting facets of carrion. Acknowledging the multiple trophic and non-trophic interactions among dead and live animals, including both herbivores and carnivores, will notably improve our understanding of the overlapping pressures that shape the landscape of fear and disgust. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology of Predation and Scavenging and the Interface)

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31 pages, 18530 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Early Branching Group of Orbiniida Sensu Struck et al., 2015: Parergodrilidae and Orbiniidae

by Miguel A. Meca, Anna Zhadan and Torsten H. Struck

Diversity 2021, 13(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13010029 - 13 Jan 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4223

Abstract

This review addresses the state of the art of the systematics and the improvements in the biology, ecology and species diversity of the two annelid taxa Parergodrilidae and Orbiniidae, the early branching group of Orbiniida sensu Struck et al., 2015 according to molecular [...] Read more.

This review addresses the state of the art of the systematics and the improvements in the biology, ecology and species diversity of the two annelid taxa Parergodrilidae and Orbiniidae, the early branching group of Orbiniida sensu Struck et al., 2015 according to molecular studies. An effort to identify gaps of knowledge is given to understand the distribution, dispersal and the diversity Parergodrilidae and Orbiniidae hold, as well as to give several directions for future research. Parergodrilidae is a taxon of interstitial annelids constituted by the terrestrial Parergodrilus heideri (monotypic genus up to date), reported throughout Europe but also in Korea and North America, and the genus Stygocapitella, which includes eleven species from the upper shore of sandy beaches distributed along Europe and other regions of the world. Orbiniidae contains more than 200 described species spread over 20 valid genera, varying in size from a few millimeters up to 30 cm, distributed globally and living in a wide variety of soft bottoms. Improving the knowledge on these two sister-taxa is crucial for the understanding of the evolution to interstitial forms by progenesis in Annelida. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Diversity of Annelids)

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11 pages, 894 KiB

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Reduced Oxygen as an Environmental Pressure in the Evolution of the Blind Mexican Cavefish

by Tyler Boggs and Joshua Gross

Diversity 2021, 13(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13010026 - 12 Jan 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4015

Abstract

Extreme environmental features can drive the evolution of extreme phenotypes. Over the course of evolution, certain environmental changes may be so drastic that they lead to extinction. Conversely, if an organism adapts to harsh environmental changes, the adaptations may permit expansion of a [...] Read more.

Extreme environmental features can drive the evolution of extreme phenotypes. Over the course of evolution, certain environmental changes may be so drastic that they lead to extinction. Conversely, if an organism adapts to harsh environmental changes, the adaptations may permit expansion of a novel niche. The interaction between environmental stressors and adaptive changes is well-illustrated by the blind Mexican cavefish, Astyanaxmexicanus, which has recurrently adapted to the stark subterranean environment. The transition from terrestrial rivers and streams (occupied by extant surface morphs of the same species) to the cave has been accompanied by the resorption of eyes, diminished pigmentation and reduced metabolism in cave-dwelling morphs. The principal features of caves most often associated with evolution of these common cave features are the absence of light and limited nutrition. However, a putatively essential cave feature that has received less attention is the frequently low concentration of oxygen within natural karst environments. Here, we review the potential role of limited oxygen as a critical environmental feature of caves in the Sierra de El Abra. Additionally, we review evidence that Astyanax cavefish may have evolved adaptive features enabling them to thrive in lower oxygen compared to their surface-dwelling counterparts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cave Communities: From the Surface Border to the Deep Darkness)

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13 pages, 1917 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Parrot Ownership and Capture in Coastal Ecuador: Developing a Trapping Pressure Index

by Rebecca Biddle, Ivette Solis-Ponce, Martin Jones, Mark Pilgrim and Stuart Marsden

Diversity 2021, 13(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/d13010015 - 5 Jan 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 5171

Abstract

We located rural communities with pet parrots and used these locations to predict the probability of illegal parrot ownership across coastal Ecuador, using variables related to demand for pets, parrot availability, and trapping accessibility. In 12 pet keeping communities, we carried out in-depth [...] Read more.

We located rural communities with pet parrots and used these locations to predict the probability of illegal parrot ownership across coastal Ecuador, using variables related to demand for pets, parrot availability, and trapping accessibility. In 12 pet keeping communities, we carried out in-depth interviews with 106 people, to quantify ownership, trapping, and interviewees’ attitudes towards these behaviours. We combined these data to calculate a trapping pressure index for four key roosting, feeding and nesting sites for the Critically Endangered Lilacine or Ecuadorian Amazon Parrot Amazona lilacina. We found that 66% of all communities had pet parrots and 31% had pet Lilacines. Our predictive models showed that pet parrot ownership occurs throughout coastal Ecuador, but ownership of Lilacines by rural communities, is more likely to occur within the natural distribution of the species. The number of people per community who had owned Lilacines in the last three years varied from 0–50%, as did the number of people who had trapped them—from 0–26%. We interviewed 10 people who had captured the species in the last three years who reported motives of either to sell or keep birds as pets. Attitudes towards pet keeping and trapping differed among the 12 communities: 20–52% believed it was acceptable to keep pet parrots, and for 32–74%, it was acceptable to catch parrots to sell. This being said, most people believed that wild parrots were important for nature and that local people had a responsibility to protect them. We conclude that trapping pressure is greatest in the southern part of the Lilacine’s range, and urgent conservation measures such as nest and roost protection, and local community engagement are needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Conservation of Parrots in Their Native and Non-Native Ranges)

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13 pages, 7883 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Change of Ellipsoid Biovolume (EV) of Ground Beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) along an Urban–Suburban–Rural Gradient of Central Slovakia

by Vladimír Langraf, Stanislav David, Ramona Babosová, Kornélia Petrovičová and Janka Schlarmannová

Diversity 2020, 12(12), 475; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12120475 - 14 Dec 2020

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2614

Abstract

Changes in the structure of ground beetle communities indicate environmental stability or instability influenced by, e.g., urbanization, agriculture, and forestry. It can affect flight capability and ellipsoid biovolume (EV) of ground beetles. Therefore, we analyzed ground beetles in various habitats. In the course [...] Read more.

Changes in the structure of ground beetle communities indicate environmental stability or instability influenced by, e.g., urbanization, agriculture, and forestry. It can affect flight capability and ellipsoid biovolume (EV) of ground beetles. Therefore, we analyzed ground beetles in various habitats. In the course of the period from 2015 to 2017, we recorded in pitfall traps 2379 individuals (1030 males and 1349 females) belonging to 52 species at six localities (two rural, two suburban, two urban). We observed the decrease in the average EV value and morphometric characters (length, height, and width of the body) of ground beetles in the direction of the rural–suburban–urban gradient. Our results also suggest a decrease in EV of apterous and brachypterous species and an increase in macropterous species in the urban and suburban landscapes near agricultural fields. The increasing EV of apterous and brachypterous species and the decreasing of macropterous species was observed in rural landscape conditions with not continuous cover forestry and partial forest management. The creation of habitat fragments in urbanized conditions is key to maintaining the average EV in apterous and brachypterous species in urban and suburban landscapes. Full article

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12 pages, 1289 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Evolution and Biogeography of Wolbachia in Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

by Manuela O. Ramalho and Corrie S. Moreau

Diversity 2020, 12(11), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12110426 - 12 Nov 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6029

Abstract

Wolbachia bacteria are widely distributed across invertebrate taxa, including ants, but several aspects of this host-associated interaction are still poorly explored, especially with regard to the ancestral state association, origin, and dispersion patterns of this bacterium. Therefore, in this study, we explored the [...] Read more.

Wolbachia bacteria are widely distributed across invertebrate taxa, including ants, but several aspects of this host-associated interaction are still poorly explored, especially with regard to the ancestral state association, origin, and dispersion patterns of this bacterium. Therefore, in this study, we explored the association of Wolbachia with Formicidae in an evolutionary context. Our data suggest that supergroup F is the ancestral character state for Wolbachia infection in ants, and there is only one transition to supergroup A, and once ants acquired infection with supergroup A, there have been no other strains introduced. Our data also reveal that the origin of Wolbachia in ants likely originated in Asia and spread to the Americas, and then back to Asia. Understanding the processes and mechanisms of dispersion of these bacteria in Formicidae is a crucial step to advance the knowledge of this symbiosis and their implications in an evolutionary context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diversity, Biogeography and Community Ecology of Ants)

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8 pages, 256 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Predators as Agents of Selection and Diversification

by Jerald B. Johnson and Mark C. Belk

Diversity 2020, 12(11), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12110415 - 31 Oct 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 8416

Abstract

Predation is ubiquitous in nature and can be an important component of both ecological and evolutionary interactions. One of the most striking features of predators is how often they cause evolutionary diversification in natural systems. Here, we review several ways that this can [...] Read more.

Predation is ubiquitous in nature and can be an important component of both ecological and evolutionary interactions. One of the most striking features of predators is how often they cause evolutionary diversification in natural systems. Here, we review several ways that this can occur, exploring empirical evidence and suggesting promising areas for future work. We also introduce several papers recently accepted in Diversity that demonstrate just how important and varied predation can be as an agent of natural selection. We conclude that there is still much to be done in this field, especially in areas where multiple predator species prey upon common prey, in certain taxonomic groups where we still know very little, and in an overall effort to actually quantify mortality rates and the strength of natural selection in the wild. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Predators as Agents of Selection and Diversification)

16 pages, 2691 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Site-Level Variation in Parrotfish Grazing and Bioerosion as a Function of Species-Specific Feeding Metrics

by Ines D Lange, Chris T Perry, Kyle M Morgan, Ronan Roche, Cassandra E Benkwitt and Nicholas AJ Graham

Diversity 2020, 12(10), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12100379 - 2 Oct 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 5195

Abstract

Parrotfish provide important ecological functions on coral reefs, including the provision of new settlement space through grazing and the generation of sediment through bioerosion of reef substrate. Estimating these functions at an ecosystem level depends on accurately quantifying the functional impact of individuals, [...] Read more.

Parrotfish provide important ecological functions on coral reefs, including the provision of new settlement space through grazing and the generation of sediment through bioerosion of reef substrate. Estimating these functions at an ecosystem level depends on accurately quantifying the functional impact of individuals, yet parrotfish feeding metrics are only available for a limited range of sites, species and size classes. We quantified bite rates, proportion of bites leaving scars and scar sizes in situ for the dominant excavator (Cetoscarus ocellatus, Chlorurus strongylocephalus, Ch. sordidus) and scraper species (Scarus rubroviolaceus, S. frenatus, S. niger, S. tricolor, S. scaber, S. psittacus) in the central Indian Ocean. This includes the first record of scar frequencies and sizes for the latter three species. Bite rates varied with species and life phase and decreased with body size. The proportion of bites leaving scars and scar sizes differed among species and increased with body size. Species-level allometric relationships between body size and each of these feeding metrics were used to parameterize annual individual grazing and bioerosion rates which increase non-linearly with body size. Large individuals of C. ocellatus, Ch. strongylocephalus and S. rubroviolaceus can graze 200–400 m² and erode >500 kg of reef substrate annually. Smaller species graze 1–100 m² yr⁻¹ and erode 0.2–30 kg yr⁻¹. We used these individual functional rates to quantify community grazing and bioerosion levels at 15 sites across the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago. Although parrotfish density was 2.6 times higher on Maldivian reefs, average grazing (3.9 ± 1.4 m² m⁻² reef yr⁻¹) and bioerosion levels (3.1 ± 1.2 kg m⁻² reef yr⁻¹) were about 15% lower than in the Chagos Archipelago (4.5 ± 2.3 and 3.7 ± 3.0, respectively), due to the dominance of small species and individuals in the Maldives (90% <30 cm length). This demonstrates that large-bodied species and individuals contribute disproportionally to both grazing and bioerosion. Across all sites, grazing increased by 66 ± 5 m² ha⁻¹ and bioerosion by 109 ± 9 kg ha⁻¹ for every kg increase in parrotfish biomass. However, for a given level of parrotfish biomass, grazing and bioerosion levels were higher on Maldivian reefs than in the Chagos Archipelago. This suggests that small-bodied fish assemblages can maintain ecosystem functions, but only if key species are present in sufficiently high numbers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity and Ecology of Herbivorous Fish)

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16 pages, 557 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Individual Variation in Predatory Behavior, Scavenging and Seasonal Prey Availability as Potential Drivers of Coexistence between Wolves and Bears

by Andrés Ordiz, Cyril Milleret, Antonio Uzal, Barbara Zimmermann, Petter Wabakken, Camilla Wikenros, Håkan Sand, Jon E Swenson and Jonas Kindberg

Diversity 2020, 12(9), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12090356 - 15 Sep 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 7989

Abstract

Several large carnivore populations are recovering former ranges, and it is important to understand interspecific interactions between overlapping species. In Scandinavia, recent research has reported that brown bear presence influences gray wolf habitat selection and kill rates. Here, we characterized the temporal use [...] Read more.

Several large carnivore populations are recovering former ranges, and it is important to understand interspecific interactions between overlapping species. In Scandinavia, recent research has reported that brown bear presence influences gray wolf habitat selection and kill rates. Here, we characterized the temporal use of a common prey resource by sympatric wolves and bears and described individual and seasonal variation in their direct and/or indirect interactions. Most bear–wolf interactions were indirect, via bear scavenging of wolf kills. Bears used >50% of wolf kills, whereas we did not record any wolf visit at bear kills. Adult and subadult bears visited wolf kills, but female bears with cubs of the year, the most vulnerable age class to conspecifics and other predators, did not. Wolf and bear kill rates peaked in early summer, when both targeted neonate moose calves, which coincided with a reduction in bear scavenging rate. Some bears were highly predatory and some did not kill any calf. Individual and age-class variation (in bear predation and scavenging patterns) and seasonality (in bear scavenging patterns and main prey availability of both wolves and bears) could mediate coexistence of these apex predators. Similar processes likely occur in other ecosystems with varying carnivore assemblages. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology of Predation and Scavenging and the Interface)

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23 pages, 7291 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Interspecific Hybridization and Introgression Influence Biodiversity—Based on Genetic Diversity of Central European Viola epipsila-V. palustris Complex

by Justyna Żabicka, Grzegorz Migdałek, Aneta Słomka, Elwira Sliwinska, Leszek Mackiewicz, Andrzej Keczyński and Elżbieta Kuta

Diversity 2020, 12(9), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12090321 - 24 Aug 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3767

Abstract

The Viola epipsila-V. palustris complex is a highly taxonomically complicated group of species in its entire circumboreal range of distribution. Habitat loss, forest flooding, and hybridization could lead to the extinction of V. epipsila. A hybrid index and principal component [...] Read more.

The Viola epipsila-V. palustris complex is a highly taxonomically complicated group of species in its entire circumboreal range of distribution. Habitat loss, forest flooding, and hybridization could lead to the extinction of V. epipsila. A hybrid index and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to select qualitative and quantitative morphological features to distinguish parent species and hybrids, inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers to determine the genetic diversity of the populations, flow cytometry to estimate the genome size (GS), and non-coding chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) regions to indicate the directions of crosses. All taxa are very morphologically variable, and their features can change within a season. The most stable feature is the distance of the bracts on the pedicel from the rhizome. The genetic diversity of all taxa populations is low and highly influenced by selfing and vegetative propagation. The population structure is differentiated: populations of V. epipsila or V. palustris, mixed populations with both parent species, F1 hybrids and populations with introgressive forms occur in different regions. The interspecific GS variation corresponds to the ploidy level (4x = 2.52 pg, 8x = 4.26 pg, 6x = 3.42 pg). Viola epipsila is the mother plant of the hybrids. Research has shown the risk of V. epipsila extinction in Central Europe and the importance of local populations in studying the role of hybridization in reducing/maintaining/increasing biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology, Biogeography and Evolutionary Biology of Peatlands)

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9 pages, 455 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Permeability of Natural versus Anthropogenic Forest Edges Modulates the Abundance of Ground Beetles of Different Dispersal Power and Habitat Affinity

by Tibor Magura and Gábor L. Lövei

Diversity 2020, 12(9), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12090320 - 21 Aug 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2856

Abstract

Forest edges are formed by natural or anthropogenic processes and their maintaining processes cause fundamentally different edge responses. We evaluated the published evidence on the effect of various edges on the abundance of ground beetles of different habitat affinity and dispersal power. Our [...] Read more.

Forest edges are formed by natural or anthropogenic processes and their maintaining processes cause fundamentally different edge responses. We evaluated the published evidence on the effect of various edges on the abundance of ground beetles of different habitat affinity and dispersal power. Our results, based on 23 publications and 86 species, showed that natural forest edges were impenetrable for open-habitat species with high dispersal power, preventing their influx into the forest interiors, while forest specialist species of limited dispersal power penetrated and reached abundances comparable to those in forest interiors. Anthropogenic edges, maintained by continued disturbance were permeable by macropterous open-habitat species, allowing them to invade the forest interiors, while such edges (except the forestry-induced ones) deterred brachypterous forest specialists. Different permeability of forest edges with various maintaining processes can affect ecosystem functions and services, therefore the preservation and restoration of natural forest edges are key issues in both forest ecology and nature conservation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Faunistical and Ecological Studies on Carabid Beetles)

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14 pages, 1325 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Differential Importance of Deep and Shallow Seagrass to Nekton Assemblages of the Great Barrier Reef

by Matthew A. Hayes, Eva C. McClure, Paul H. York, Kristin I. Jinks, Michael A. Rasheed, Marcus Sheaves and Rod M. Connolly

Diversity 2020, 12(8), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12080292 - 27 Jul 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5896

Abstract

Seagrass meadows are an important habitat for a variety of animals, including ecologically and socioeconomically important species. Seagrass meadows are recognised as providing species with nursery grounds, and as a migratory pathway to adjacent habitats. Despite their recognised importance, little is known about [...] Read more.

Seagrass meadows are an important habitat for a variety of animals, including ecologically and socioeconomically important species. Seagrass meadows are recognised as providing species with nursery grounds, and as a migratory pathway to adjacent habitats. Despite their recognised importance, little is known about the species assemblages that occupy seagrass meadows of different depths in the coastal zone. Understanding differences in the distribution of species in seagrass at different depths, and differences in species diversity, abundance, biomass, and size spectra, is important to fully appreciate both the ecological significance and economic importance of these seagrass meadows. Here, we assess differences in the assemblage characteristics of fish, crustacea, and cephalopods (collectively, nekton) between deep (>9 m; Halophila spinulosa dominant) and shallow water (<2 m; Halodule uninervis and/or Zostera muelleri dominant) seagrass meadows of the central Great Barrier Reef coast of Queensland, Australia. Nekton assemblage structure differed between deep and shallow seagrass. Deeper meadows were typified by juvenile emperors (e.g., Lethrinus genivittatus), hairfinned leatherjacket (Paramonacanthus japonicus) and rabbitfish (e.g., Siganus fuscescens) in both biomass per unit effort (BPUE) and catch per unit effort (CPUE), whereas shallow meadows were typified by the green tiger prawn (Penaeus semisulcatus) and pugnose ponyfish (Secutor insidiator) in both BPUE and CPUE. Both meadow depths were distinct in their nekton assemblage, particularly for socioeconomically important species, with 11 species unique to both shallow and deep meadows. However, both meadow depths also included juveniles of socioeconomically important species found in adjacent habitats as adults. The total nekton CPUE was not different between deep and shallow seagrass, but the BPUE and body mass of individual animals were greater in deep than shallow seagrass. Size spectra analysis indicated that in both deep and shallow meadows, smaller animals predominated, even more so than theoretically expected for size spectra. Our findings highlight the unique attributes of both shallow and deeper water seagrass meadows, and identify the distinct and critically important role of deep seagrass meadows within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) as a habitat for small and juvenile species, including those of local fisheries value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity in Seagrass Ecosystems)

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25 pages, 1905 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparative Analysis of the Core Proteomes among the Pseudomonas Major Evolutionary Groups Reveals Species-Specific Adaptations for Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas chlororaphis

by Marios Nikolaidis, Dimitris Mossialos, Stephen G. Oliver and Grigorios D. Amoutzias

Diversity 2020, 12(8), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12080289 - 24 Jul 2020

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 8014

Abstract

The Pseudomonas genus includes many species living in diverse environments and hosts. It is important to understand which are the major evolutionary groups and what are the genomic/proteomic components they have in common or are unique. Towards this goal, we analyzed 494 complete [...] Read more.

The Pseudomonas genus includes many species living in diverse environments and hosts. It is important to understand which are the major evolutionary groups and what are the genomic/proteomic components they have in common or are unique. Towards this goal, we analyzed 494 complete Pseudomonas proteomes and identified 297 core-orthologues. The subsequent phylogenomic analysis revealed two well-defined species (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas chlororaphis) and four wider phylogenetic groups (Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas syringae, Pseudomonas putida) with a sufficient number of proteomes. As expected, the genus-level core proteome was highly enriched for proteins involved in metabolism, translation, and transcription. In addition, between 39–70% of the core proteins in each group had a significant presence in each of all the other groups. Group-specific core proteins were also identified, with P. aeruginosa having the highest number of these and P. fluorescens having none. We identified several P. aeruginosa-specific core proteins (such as CntL, CntM, PlcB, Acp1, MucE, SrfA, Tse1, Tsi2, Tse3, and EsrC) that are known to play an important role in its pathogenicity. Finally, a holin family bacteriocin and a mitomycin-like biosynthetic protein were found to be core-specific for P. cholororaphis and we hypothesize that these proteins may confer a competitive advantage against other root-colonizers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pseudomonas Biology and Biodiversity)

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23 pages, 1690 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Building a Robust, Densely-Sampled Spider Tree of Life for Ecosystem Research

by Nuria Macías-Hernández, Marc Domènech, Pedro Cardoso, Brent C. Emerson, Paulo Alexandre Vieira Borges, Jesús Lozano-Fernandez, Octávio S. Paulo, Ana Vieira, Alba Enguídanos, François Rigal, Isabel R. Amorim and Miquel A. Arnedo

Diversity 2020, 12(8), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/d12080288 - 23 Jul 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6428

Abstract

Phylogenetic relatedness is a key diversity measure for the analysis and understanding of how species and communities evolve across time and space. Understanding the nonrandom loss of species with respect to phylogeny is also essential for better-informed conservation decisions. However, several factors are [...] Read more.

Phylogenetic relatedness is a key diversity measure for the analysis and understanding of how species and communities evolve across time and space. Understanding the nonrandom loss of species with respect to phylogeny is also essential for better-informed conservation decisions. However, several factors are known to influence phylogenetic reconstruction and, ultimately, phylogenetic diversity metrics. In this study, we empirically tested how some of these factors (topological constraint, taxon sampling, genetic markers and calibration) affect phylogenetic resolution and uncertainty. We built a densely sampled, species-level phylogenetic tree for spiders, combining Sanger sequencing of species from local communities of two biogeographical regions (Iberian Peninsula and Macaronesia) with a taxon-rich backbone matrix of Genbank sequences and a topological constraint derived from recent phylogenomic studies. The resulting tree constitutes the most complete spider phylogeny to date, both in terms of terminals and background information, and may serve as a standard reference for the analysis of phylogenetic diversity patterns at the community level. We then used this tree to investigate how partial data affect phylogenetic reconstruction, phylogenetic diversity estimates and their rankings, and, ultimately, the ecological processes inferred for each community. We found that the incorporation of a single slowly evolving marker (28S) to the DNA barcode sequences from local communities, had the highest impact on tree topology, closely followed by the use of a backbone matrix. The increase in missing data resulting from combining partial sequences from local communities only had a moderate impact on the resulting trees, similar to the difference observed when using topological constraints. Our study further revealed substantial differences in both the phylogenetic structure and diversity rankings of the analyzed communities estimated from the different phylogenetic treatments, especially when using non-ultrametric trees (phylograms) instead of time-stamped trees (chronograms). Finally, we provide some recommendations on reconstructing phylogenetic trees to infer phylogenetic diversity within ecological studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematics and Evolution of Spiders)

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