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36 pages, 7086 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Future Fuels—Analyses of the Future Prospects of Renewable Synthetic Fuels

by Thomas Pregger, Günter Schiller, Felix Cebulla, Ralph-Uwe Dietrich, Simon Maier, André Thess, Andreas Lischke, Nathalie Monnerie, Christian Sattler, Patrick Le Clercq, Bastian Rauch, Markus Köhler, Michael Severin, Peter Kutne, Christiane Voigt, Hans Schlager, Simone Ehrenberger, Mario Feinauer, Lukas Werling, Victor P. Zhukov, Christoph Kirchberger, Helmut K. Ciezki, Florian Linke, Torsten Methling, Uwe Riedel and Manfred Aigner Show full author list Hide full author list

Energies 2020, 13(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13010138 - 26 Dec 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 10851

Abstract

The Future Fuels project combines research in several institutes of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) on the production and use of synthetic fuels for space, energy, transportation, and aviation. This article gives an overview of the research questions considered and results achieved so [...] Read more.

The Future Fuels project combines research in several institutes of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) on the production and use of synthetic fuels for space, energy, transportation, and aviation. This article gives an overview of the research questions considered and results achieved so far and also provides insight into the multidimensional and interdisciplinary project approach. Various methods and models were used which are embedded in the research context and based on established approaches. The prospects for large-scale fuel production using renewable electricity and solar radiation played a key role in the project. Empirical and model-based investigations of the technological and cost-related aspects were supplemented by modelling of the integration into a future electricity system. The composition, properties, and the related performance and emissions of synthetic fuels play an important role both for potential oxygenated drop-in fuels in road transport and for the design and certification of alternative aviation fuels. In addition, possible green synthetic fuels as an alternative to highly toxic hydrazine were investigated with different tools and experiments using combustion chambers. The results provide new answers to many research questions. The experiences with the interdisciplinary approach of Future Fuels are relevant for the further development of research topics and co-operations in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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14 pages, 2181 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Characteristics of a New Polymer Electrolyte Electrolysis Technique with Only Cathodic Media Supply Coupled to a Photovoltaic Panel

by Martin Müller, Walter Zwaygardt, Edward Rauls, Michael Hehemann, Stefan Haas, Lars Stolt, Holger Janssen and Marcelo Carmo

Energies 2019, 12(21), 4150; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12214150 - 30 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3198

Abstract

Herein we discuss polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis stacks and systems we developed that are optimized for direct coupling to a photovoltaic (PV) panel. One advantage of PEM systems is their use of non-corrosive and non-toxic media. Thus, safe outdoor operation can be [...] Read more.

Herein we discuss polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolysis stacks and systems we developed that are optimized for direct coupling to a photovoltaic (PV) panel. One advantage of PEM systems is their use of non-corrosive and non-toxic media. Thus, safe outdoor operation can be guaranteed, even in the case of a leakage. The system design was adapted to reduce the number of connection tubes, allowing for a series connection of multiple stacks at low cost and high reliability. One coupled PEM/PV system was tested under various temperature and irradiance conditions. All system components were also thoroughly characterized. The characterization was used to calibrate simple models of the individual components. Finally, the models were used to predict the system’s solar-to-hydrogen efficiency under different operating conditions and to find an optimal configuration for real-world outdoor operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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12 pages, 2684 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimum Band Gap Energy of ((Ag),Cu)(InGa)Se₂ Materials for Combination with NiMo–NiO Catalysts for Thermally Integrated Solar-Driven Water Splitting Applications

by İlknur Bayrak Pehlivan, Marika Edoff, Lars Stolt and Tomas Edvinsson

Energies 2019, 12(21), 4064; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12214064 - 24 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4221

Abstract

Solar-driven water splitting is considered one of the promising future routes to generate fuel in a sustainable way. A carbon-free solar fuel, molecular hydrogen, can here be produced along two different but intimately related routes, photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting or photovoltaic electrolysis (PV-electrolysis), [...] Read more.

Solar-driven water splitting is considered one of the promising future routes to generate fuel in a sustainable way. A carbon-free solar fuel, molecular hydrogen, can here be produced along two different but intimately related routes, photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting or photovoltaic electrolysis (PV-electrolysis), where the latter builds on well-established solar cell and electrolysis materials with high efficiency. The PV-electrolysis approach is also possible to construct from an integrated PEC/PV-system avoiding dc–dc converters and enabling heat exchange between the PV and electrolyzer part, to a conventionally wired PV-electrolysis system. In either case, the operating voltage at a certain current needs to be matched with the catalyst system in the electrolysis part. Here, we investigate ((Ag),Cu)(In,Ga)Se₂ ((A)CIGS)-materials with varying Ga-content modules for combination with NiMo–NiO catalysts in alkaline water splitting. The use of (A)CIGS is attractive because of the low cost-to-performance ratio and the possibility to optimize the performance of the system by tuning the band gap of (A)CIGS in contrast to Si technology. The band gap tuning is possible by changing the Ga/(Ga + In) ratio. Optoelectronic properties of the (A)CIGS materials with Ga/(Ga + In) ratios between 0.23 and 0.47 and the voltage and power output from the resulting water splitting modules are reported. Electrolysis is quantified at temperatures between 25 and 60 °C, an interval obtainable by varying the thermal heat exchange form a 1-sun illuminated PV module and an electrolyte system. The band gaps of the (A)CIGS thin films were between 1.08 to 1.25 eV and the three-cell module power conversion efficiencies (PCE) ranged from 16.44% with 1.08 eV band gap and 19.04% with 1.17 eV band gap. The highest solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency was 13.33% for the (A)CIGS–NiMo–NiO system with 17.97% module efficiency and electrolysis at 60 °C compared to a STH efficiency of 12.98% at 25 °C. The increase in STH efficiency with increasing temperature was more notable for lower band gaps as these are closer to the overpotential threshold for performing efficient solar-driven catalysis, while only a modest improvement can be obtained by utilizing thermal exchange for a band gap matched PV-catalysts system. The results show that usage of cost-effective and stable thin film PV materials and earth abundant catalysts can provide STH efficiencies beyond 13% even with PV modules with modest efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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17 pages, 6060 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nanostructured Ni Based Anode and Cathode for Alkaline Water Electrolyzers

by Fabrizio Ganci, Tracy Baguet, Giuseppe Aiello, Valentino Cusumano, Philippe Mandin, Carmelo Sunseri and Rosalinda Inguanta

Energies 2019, 12(19), 3669; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12193669 - 25 Sep 2019

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4089

Abstract

Owing to the progressive abandoning of the fossil fuels and the increase of atmospheric CO₂ concentration, the use of renewable energies is strongly encouraged. The hydrogen economy provides a very interesting scenario. In fact, hydrogen is a valuable energy carrier and can [...] Read more.

Owing to the progressive abandoning of the fossil fuels and the increase of atmospheric CO₂ concentration, the use of renewable energies is strongly encouraged. The hydrogen economy provides a very interesting scenario. In fact, hydrogen is a valuable energy carrier and can act as a storage medium as well to balance the discontinuity of the renewable sources. In order to exploit the potential of hydrogen it must be made available in adequate quantities and at an affordable price. Both goals can be potentially achieved through the electrochemical water splitting, which is an environmentally friendly process as well as the electrons and water are the only reagents. However, these devices still require a lot of research to reduce costs and increase efficiency. An approach to improve their performance is based on nanostructured electrodes characterized by high electrocatalytic activity. In this work, we show that by using template electrosynthesis it is possible to fabricate Ni nanowires featuring a very high surface area. In particular, we found that water-alkaline electrolyzers with Ni nanowires electrodes covered by different electrocatalyst have good and stable performance at room temperature as well. Besides, the results concern nickel-cobalt nanowires electrodes for both hydrogen and oxygen evolution reaction will be presented and discussed. Finally, preliminary tests concerning the use of Ni foam differently functionalized will be shown. For each electrode, electrochemical and electrocatalytic tests aimed to establishing the performance of the electrolyzers were carried out. Long term amperostatic test carried out in aqueous solution of KOH will be reported as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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11 pages, 2651 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Morphology and Mechanical Stability of Nanometric Platinum Layer on Nickel Foam for Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

by Rachela G. Milazzo, Stefania M. S. Privitera, Silvia Scalese and Salvatore A. Lombardo

Energies 2019, 12(16), 3116; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12163116 - 14 Aug 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3848

Abstract

Platinum thin films are deposited on open-cell nickel foam with porosity of 95% via spontaneous galvanic displacement. Ni foams with different morphologies and pore size are compared and characterized by electrochemical and structural analysis techniques. The effect of Pt coating on the electrochemical [...] Read more.

Platinum thin films are deposited on open-cell nickel foam with porosity of 95% via spontaneous galvanic displacement. Ni foams with different morphologies and pore size are compared and characterized by electrochemical and structural analysis techniques. The effect of Pt coating on the electrochemical activity is studied by using the Pt coated foam as electrode material for hydrogen evolution reaction in an aqueous alkaline electrolyte. The electrocatalytic activity of the electrodes is evaluated using linear sweep voltammetry curves and Tafel plots as a function of deposition time. The comparison with scanning electron microscopy analyses demonstrates that the catalytic activity has a maximum when the platinum film completely covers the Ni surface. The further increase of the Pt thickness leads to mechanical instability with crack formation and delamination. The effect of the foam morphology on the Pt deposition rate has been evaluated and discussed, determining the minimum Pt amount required to achieve the maximum electrochemical activity, as well as the maximum thickness in order to assure stable characteristics before delamination occurs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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11 pages, 5169 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Reversible Efficiency Variation of Tandem Amorphous/Microcrystalline Si Photovoltaic Modules in Outdoor Operation

by Fabio Ricco Galluzzo, Cosimo Gerardi, Andrea Canino and Salvatore Lombardo

Energies 2019, 12(15), 2876; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12152876 - 26 Jul 2019

Viewed by 3265

Abstract

The Staebler-Wronski effect in amorphous silicon based photovoltaic devices is responsible for degradation of their power conversion efficiency, within approximately the first one thousand hours of light soaking. Several experimental studies led to highlight the performance instability phenomena for the mentioned devices, underling [...] Read more.

The Staebler-Wronski effect in amorphous silicon based photovoltaic devices is responsible for degradation of their power conversion efficiency, within approximately the first one thousand hours of light soaking. Several experimental studies led to highlight the performance instability phenomena for the mentioned devices, underling that recovery and improvement of such performance are observable, by subjecting such devices (both of single-junction and tandem types) to DC reverse bias stresses under illumination, or to operation in the Maximum Power Point (MPP) under variable conditions of temperature and illumination. In this work, we present and discuss the results of novel recent outdoor tests on stabilized specimens (i.e., exposed to 1000 h extended light soaking, before our tests) of tandem amorphous/microcrystalline Si (a-Si/µc-Si) photovoltaic (PV) minimodules operating in their MPP, by analyzing the causes of the performance instability effects, systematically observed on a daily scale. During the mentioned tests, we have monitored the solar cell operating temperature and the incident solar spectrum at various times in different days to verify the effect of cell temperature and solar spectrum changes on the cell performances. The experimental results show a clear correlation between performance improvements of the photovoltaic modules and their thermal history during the outdoor tests, proving the interplay between defect build-up at a lower temperature and defect annealing at a higher temperature, taking place in the solar cells operated in MPP during conventional outdoor operation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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16 pages, 6293 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Applicability of a New Sulfonated Pentablock Copolymer Membrane and Modified Gas Diffusion Layers for Low-Cost Water Splitting Processes

by S. Filice, G. Urzì, R. G. Milazzo, S. M. S. Privitera, S. A. Lombardo, G. Compagnini and S. Scalese

Energies 2019, 12(11), 2064; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12112064 - 30 May 2019

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4035

Abstract

The aim of this work is to evaluate the possible use of Nexar™ polymer, a sulfonated pentablock copolymer (s-PBC), whose structure is formed by tert-butyl styrene, hydrogenated isoprene, sulfonated styrene, hydrogenated isoprene, and tert-butyl styrene (tBS-HI-SS-HI-tBS), as a more economical and efficient alternative [...] Read more.

The aim of this work is to evaluate the possible use of Nexar™ polymer, a sulfonated pentablock copolymer (s-PBC), whose structure is formed by tert-butyl styrene, hydrogenated isoprene, sulfonated styrene, hydrogenated isoprene, and tert-butyl styrene (tBS-HI-SS-HI-tBS), as a more economical and efficient alternative to Nafion^® membrane for proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis cells. Furthermore, we have studied a new methodology for modification of gas diffusion layers (GDL) by depositing Pt and TiO₂ nanoparticles at the cathode and anode side, respectively, and a protective polymeric layer on their surface, allowing the improvement of the contact with the membrane. Morphological, structural, and electrical characterization were performed on the Nexar™ membrane and on the modified GDLs. The use of modified GDLs positively affects the efficiency of the water electrolysis process. Furthermore, Nexar™ showed higher water uptake and conductivity with respect to Nafion^®, resulting in an increased amount of current generated during water electrolysis. In conclusion, we show that Nexar™ is an efficient and cheaper alternative to Nafion^® as the proton exchange membrane in water splitting applications and we suggest a possible methodology for improving GDLs’ properties. These results meet the urgent need for low-cost materials and processes for hydrogen production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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Review

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29 pages, 1778 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Prospects for Hermetic Sealing of Scaled-Up Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Generators for Reliable and Risk Free Operation

by Sonya Calnan, Stefan Aschbrenner, Fuxi Bao, Erno Kemppainen, Iris Dorbandt and Rutger Schlatmann

Energies 2019, 12(21), 4176; https://doi.org/10.3390/en12214176 - 1 Nov 2019

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4592

Abstract

Photo-electrochemical (PEC) systems have the potential to contribute to de-carbonation of the global energy supply because solar energy can be directly converted to hydrogen, which can be burnt without the release of greenhouse gases. However, meaningful deployment of PEC technology in the global [...] Read more.

Photo-electrochemical (PEC) systems have the potential to contribute to de-carbonation of the global energy supply because solar energy can be directly converted to hydrogen, which can be burnt without the release of greenhouse gases. However, meaningful deployment of PEC technology in the global energy system, even when highly efficient scaled up devices become available, shall only be a reality when their safe and reliable operation can be guaranteed over several years of service life. The first part of this review discusses the importance of hermetic sealing of up scaled PEC device provided by the casing and sealing joints from a reliability and risk perspective. The second part of the review presents a survey of fully functional devices and early stage demonstrators and uses this to establish the extent to which the state of the art in PEC device design address the issue of hermetic sealing. The survey revealed that current material choices and sealing techniques are still unsuitable for scale–up and commercialization. Accordingly, we examined possible synergies with related photovoltaic and electrochemical devices that have been commericalised, and derived therefrom, recommendations for future research routes that could accelerate the development of hermetic seals of PEC devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials and Devices for Solar to Hydrogen Energy Conversion)

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