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11 pages, 2193 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rapid Determination of Several Biogenic Amines in Cold-Chain Fish Samples by Portable Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry with Nano-Electrospray Ionization

by Jianxin Wu, Xiaotong Ma, Zongyi Wang, Ying Wei, Yuting Liu, Jiaqian Men and Wenyu Ma

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1802; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101802 - 19 May 2026

Abstract

A novel method was developed for the rapid determination of five biogenic amines (BAs)—histamine (HIS), tyramine (TYR), cadaverine (CAD), spermidine (SPD), and spermine (SPM) in cold-chain fish by portable ion trap mass spectrometry with nano-electrospray(nESI) ionization. Samples were homogenized and extracted with aqueous [...] Read more.

A novel method was developed for the rapid determination of five biogenic amines (BAs)—histamine (HIS), tyramine (TYR), cadaverine (CAD), spermidine (SPD), and spermine (SPM) in cold-chain fish by portable ion trap mass spectrometry with nano-electrospray(nESI) ionization. Samples were homogenized and extracted with aqueous solution containing 1% (v/v) formic acid and 80% (v/v) acetonitrile. With HIS-d4 as an internal standard, the sample solutions were directly injected with the nESI injection device and detected by a portable ion trap mass spectrometer at MS/MS detection mode. The results showed good linearity in the invested range of 0.2 (or 0.5)–10 μg mL⁻¹ with R² > 0.992, The limit of detection (LODs) and limits of quantification (LOQs) for HIS were less than 1.5 mg/kg and 4.0 mg/kg, respectively; the LOD and LOQ for other four BAs were less than 4.0 mg/kg and 12.5 mg/kg, respectively. Recoveries at three fortified levels ranged from 84.26% to 106.6% with relative standard deviations between 4.56% and 13.84%. With the safety limits of HIS as the concentrations of concern, this method demonstrated excellent performance when applied to the eligibility fast screening of HIS in cold-chain fish. The study provided a valuable methodological reference for the rapid detection of BAs in food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

21 pages, 5527 KB

Open AccessArticle

Systematic Characterization of Flavor Profiles and Screening of Potential Key Aroma-Active Components in Prunus salicina var. cordata cv. ‘Younai’

by Lijuan Fu, Wenjing Liu, Lihua Ren, Xiangxin Lin, Jia Guo, Hao Chen, Faxing Chen and Sun’an Yan

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1787; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101787 - 18 May 2026

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Abstract

Prunus salicina var. cordata cv. ‘Younai’ is a characteristic stone fruit germplasm resource of Fujian Province, yet its core flavor components remain unclear. This study aimed to comprehensively characterize the flavor chemistry of Younai by determining the contents of sugar–acid components and volatile [...] Read more.

Prunus salicina var. cordata cv. ‘Younai’ is a characteristic stone fruit germplasm resource of Fujian Province, yet its core flavor components remain unclear. This study aimed to comprehensively characterize the flavor chemistry of Younai by determining the contents of sugar–acid components and volatile compounds, combined with untargeted metabolomics analysis. Results showed that fructose was the predominant sweet component, while malic acid was the dominant organic acid in Younai. (Z)-3-Hexen-1-ol, 1-Hexanol and (Z)-3-Hexen-1-yl acetate were screened as potential key aroma-active compounds based on odor activity values, and γ-Decalactone plus Linalool further enriched the fruit aroma hierarchy. Untargeted metabolomics identified 26 saccharides and 21 organic acids in the fruits. Additionally, Younai fruit metabolites were dominated by polyphenols, with flavonols and phenolic acids as the core polyphenol subclasses. This study provides a chemically grounded baseline characterization of Younai flavor. The screened potential aroma-active compounds and metabolite profiles provide a foundation for future sensory validation studies and the development of quality evaluation criteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

27 pages, 8078 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Omics Integration to Investigate the Effects of Variety and Origin on Volatile and Non-Volatile Metabolites in Melons

by Junzhe Hua, Kemin Mao, Wenlong Yu, Zongyang Li, Runhan Wen, Lingyu Li, Liyan Song, Yaxin Sang and Xianghong Wang

Foods 2026, 15(10), 1746; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15101746 - 15 May 2026

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Abstract

This study investigated the effects of different cultivation environments on melon quality development and the underlying metabolic regulatory mechanisms. Using ‘Yangjiaocui’ and ‘Boyang 9’ melons, we systematically compared their physicochemical properties, nutritional components, volatile compounds, and metabolites under saline–alkali versus normal conditions, employing [...] Read more.

This study investigated the effects of different cultivation environments on melon quality development and the underlying metabolic regulatory mechanisms. Using ‘Yangjiaocui’ and ‘Boyang 9’ melons, we systematically compared their physicochemical properties, nutritional components, volatile compounds, and metabolites under saline–alkali versus normal conditions, employing an integrated multi-omics analytical model. The results showed that saline–alkali cultivation significantly increased several nutritional components (e.g., soluble solids, vitamin C, flavonoids, and polyphenols) compared to normal conditions. Gas chromatography–ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) detected 36 volatiles, predominantly esters and ketones, with 13 key markers such as isovaleric acid isovaleryl ester and ethyl butyrate, effectively discriminating cultivars and growth origins. Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS) detected 702 metabolites, chiefly organic acids and lipids. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that flavonoid biosynthesis was the most significantly enriched pathway (enrichment factor ~1, extreme significance), with coordinated regulation of tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism redirecting metabolic flux toward defensive secondary metabolites. In conclusion, our results suggest that saline–alkali cultivation may contribute to improved nutritional profiles, and multi-omics analysis effectively differentiates melon varieties and origins. This study provides a theoretical basis for understanding the quality, flavor, and metabolite profiles of melon under saline–alkali stress, employing a multi-omics approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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21 pages, 13114 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identification of Potential Bioactive Compounds in Strong-Flavor-Type Baijiu via Integration of Widely Targeted Metabolomics and Network Pharmacology

by Jinxiao Liu, Jia Zheng, Jihong Wu, Ying Sun, Mingquan Huang, Jian Su, Fuping Zheng and Dongrui Zhao

Foods 2026, 15(9), 1509; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15091509 - 27 Apr 2026

Viewed by 388

Abstract

Strong-flavor-type Baijiu, represented by Wuliangye—a renowned traditional Chinese alcoholic beverage brewed from five grains (sorghum, rice, glutinous rice, wheat, and corn)—is widely consumed and appreciated for its balanced taste and potential health benefits. While the volatile flavor compounds of Baijiu have been [...] Read more.

Strong-flavor-type Baijiu, represented by Wuliangye—a renowned traditional Chinese alcoholic beverage brewed from five grains (sorghum, rice, glutinous rice, wheat, and corn)—is widely consumed and appreciated for its balanced taste and potential health benefits. While the volatile flavor compounds of Baijiu have been well studied, its bioactive components and their underlying mechanisms remain insufficiently explored. In this study, widely targeted metabolomics techniques were innovatively employed, and 2128 compounds were identified from 10 Wuliangye samples, of which 445 were predicted to constitute potential bioactive substances. Network pharmacology analysis further identified four key compounds, namely the four potential bioactive small molecules (fisetin, luteolin, norartocarpetin, and scutellarein), along with ten core targets that were key protein targets interacting with these compounds (SRC, PIK3R1, PTGS1, AKR1B1, STAT3, CYP3A4, ESR1, PIK3CA, PIK3CB, and ALOX15). GO and KEGG enrichment analyses indicated that these targets participated in diverse biological processes, while DO analysis revealed potential associations between these targets and specific diseases. Additionally, molecular docking confirmed the binding patterns between the identified compounds and their targets. Collectively, this study provides systematic chemical information and theoretical screening results for identifying potential bioactive components in strong-flavor-type Baijiu, which may facilitate further studies of their biological functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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21 pages, 1473 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decoding the Flavor Code of Fresh and Dried Tengjiao (Zanthoxylum armatum DC.) for Preparing Fried Tengjiao Oil Through Molecular Sensory Science

by Tianyu Dong, Panpan Wu, Jie Sun, Haitao Chen and Shuqi Wang

Foods 2026, 15(8), 1326; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15081326 - 10 Apr 2026

Viewed by 419

Abstract

Fried Tengjiao oil is commonly used for seasoning spicy dishes, and both fresh and dried Tengjiao are used in its preparation. However, the flavor differences between fried Tengjiao oils prepared from these two types of raw materials have not yet been studied. The [...] Read more.

Fried Tengjiao oil is commonly used for seasoning spicy dishes, and both fresh and dried Tengjiao are used in its preparation. However, the flavor differences between fried Tengjiao oils prepared from these two types of raw materials have not yet been studied. The aim of this study was to compare and analyze the flavor differences between fresh fried Tengjiao oil (FFTO) and dried fried Tengjiao oil (DFTO). In this study, molecular sensory science was employed to reveal the flavor differences between the two at the molecular level. FFTO had a stronger pepper and spice aroma, while DFTO exhibited a more marked oily aroma. A total of 82 volatile compounds were identified via SAFE-GC-MS (solvent-assisted flavor evaporation–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry). Based on AEDA (aroma extract concentration analysis), 36 aroma-active compounds with FD ≥ 27 were accurately quantified. Following the AEDA, OAV analysis, and recombination experiments and omission tests, linalool and β-caryophyllene were identified as key flavor compounds in FTOs. α-thujone, 3-buten-1-yl isothiocyanate, citronellal, linalyl acetate, and 3-phenylpropionitrile were key flavor compounds in FFTO, and β-pinene, α-terpinene, β-phellandrene, and 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine were key flavor compounds in DFTO. Finally, chiral analysis suggests that the ratio of linalool enantiomers may be the potential cause of the flavor differences between FFTO and DFTO. This study provides theoretical guidance for the industrial production of FTO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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25 pages, 3707 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Retronasal Aroma Differences in High- and Low-Alcohol Jiangxiangxing Baijiu Using Temporal Sensory Evaluation, Retronasal Olfactory Thresholds, and Dose-over-Threshold Analysis

by Jun Zhang, Yehui Han, Xiaolong You, Xiaochun Zhu, Youlan Sun, Feng Hu, Xiaowei Yu, Shuang Chen and Yan Xu

Foods 2026, 15(7), 1156; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15071156 - 29 Mar 2026

Viewed by 528

Abstract

Retronasal aroma strongly influences the flavor quality of low-alcohol Jiangxiangxing Baijiu. This study investigated the retronasal aroma differences between high- and low-alcohol samples (Sample-High and Sample-Low). Dynamic sensory evaluation revealed roasted, grain, floral and fruity, hay, and caramel notes were more pronounced in [...] Read more.

Retronasal aroma strongly influences the flavor quality of low-alcohol Jiangxiangxing Baijiu. This study investigated the retronasal aroma differences between high- and low-alcohol samples (Sample-High and Sample-Low). Dynamic sensory evaluation revealed roasted, grain, floral and fruity, hay, and caramel notes were more pronounced in Sample-High, whereas Sample-Low exhibited stronger fatty and smoky notes, indicating insufficient retronasal aroma richness in Sample-Low. Analysis of 67 compounds showed no significant concentration differences, yet their retronasal olfactory thresholds varied markedly between alcoholic systems (ratio 1.04–4.75), leading to higher dose-over-threshold (DoT) values for several compounds in Sample-Low. Further analysis of the DoT distribution intervals showed Sample-High presented a more balanced distribution, whereas Sample-Low was strongly driven by several high-contribution compounds, which reduced the relative contributions of others. This unbalanced distribution may underlie the lower retronasal aroma richness observed in Sample-Low. These findings provide a new perspective for understanding retronasal aroma in low-alcohol Jiangxiangxing Baijiu. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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15 pages, 3212 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Impact of Different Drying Methods on the Aroma of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium Using GC–MS/GC–IMS and E-Nose Technology

by Aygul Alim, Chengfei Huang, Xin Zhao, Saren Gaowa, Runrong Zhang, Junrong Zhang, Xueqing Zhang, Yuanbao Jin and Wenzhong Hu

Foods 2026, 15(7), 1117; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15071117 - 24 Mar 2026

Viewed by 526

Abstract

Drying and storage conditions play a critical role in shaping the quality of aged citrus peel. This study investigated the effects of different processing strategies on the volatile composition, microstructure, and sensory characteristics of five-year-aged Citrus Reticulata ‘Chachi’ Peel (CRP). Four treatments were [...] Read more.

Drying and storage conditions play a critical role in shaping the quality of aged citrus peel. This study investigated the effects of different processing strategies on the volatile composition, microstructure, and sensory characteristics of five-year-aged Citrus Reticulata ‘Chachi’ Peel (CRP). Four treatments were evaluated using SPME/GC–MS, GC–IMS, electronic nose analysis, sensory assessment, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and multivariate statistical tools. GC–IMS identified 96 volatile compounds, demonstrating that aging combined with varied drying–storage conditions promoted the formation of diverse aroma-active substances. Terpenes and related compounds predominated, with the indoor-dried and warehouse-stored XH sample showing significantly higher concentrations of key terpenoids and sesquiterpenes, including α-terpineol, γ-muurolene, germacrene, β-selinenol, α-farnesene, and nerolidol. These compounds contributed to enhanced citrus, floral, fruity, and woody notes. Principal component analysis of electronic nose data (93.46% cumulative variance) clearly distinguished XH from other samples. Sensory results supported instrumental findings, indicating stronger fruity and sweet attributes in XH and C, while sun-dried samples exhibited more hay-like characteristics. SEM revealed better structural integrity in indoor-dried samples, potentially facilitating volatile retention. Overall, indoor drying and controlled storage improved aroma complexity and sensory quality, providing a scientific basis for optimized CRP processing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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37 pages, 2615 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Molecular Informatics and Sensory-Omics Study of Core Trace Components and Microbial Communities in Sauce-Aroma High-Temperature Daqu from Chishui River Basin

by Dandan Song, Lulu Song, Xian Zhong, Yashuai Wu, Yuchao Zhang and Liang Yang

Foods 2026, 15(3), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15030599 - 6 Feb 2026

Viewed by 678

Abstract

Flavor-relevant trace volatiles and microbial communities were examined in six sauce-aroma high-temperature Daqu samples. Headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) quantified 210 trace volatile compounds across 14 chemical classes. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) with variable importance in [...] Read more.

Flavor-relevant trace volatiles and microbial communities were examined in six sauce-aroma high-temperature Daqu samples. Headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) quantified 210 trace volatile compounds across 14 chemical classes. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) with variable importance in projection (VIP) screening was integrated with sensory scoring, correlation analysis, and molecular docking to an olfactory receptor model. Volatile profiles showed clear stratification in total abundance. Pyrazines dominated the high-total group. Tetramethylpyrazine served as a major driver. Sensory evaluation indicated that aroma explained overall quality best. (E)-2-pentenal and dimethyl trisulfide showed significant positive associations with aroma and overall scores. In the olfactory receptor, the polar residue module that provides directional constraints for Daqu odor activation was formed by Ser75, Ser92, Ser152, Ser258, Thr74, Thr76, Thr98, Thr200, Gln99, and Glu94. The hydrogen-bond or charge network was further reinforced by Arg150, Arg262, Asn194, His180, His261, Asp182, and Gln181. The core discriminant set comprised acetic acid, hexanoic acid, (E)-2-pentenal, nonanal, decanal, dimethyl trisulfide, trans-3-methyl-2-n-propylthiophane, 2-hexanone oxime, ethyl linoleate, propylene glycol, 2-ethenyl-6-methylpyrazine, 4-methylquinazoline, 5-methyl-2-phenyl-2-hexenal, and 1,2,3,4-tetramethoxybenzene. Sequencing revealed higher bacterial diversity than fungal. Bacillus and Kroppenstedtia were dominant bacterial genera. Aspergillus, Paecilomyces, Monascus, and Penicillium were major fungal genera. Correlation patterns suggested that Bacillus and Monascus were positively linked to acetic acid and 1,2,3,4-tetramethoxybenzene. Together, these results connected chemical fingerprints, sensory performance, receptor-level plausibility, and microbial ecology. Concrete targets are provided for quality control of high-temperature Daqu. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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16 pages, 1471 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity of Volatile Profiles and Nutritional Traits Among 29 Cucumber Cultivars

by Panling Lu, Chunfang Wang, Yongxue Zhang, Haijun Jin, Shaofang Wu, Xiaotao Ding and Hongmei Zhang

Foods 2025, 14(22), 3878; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14223878 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 1233

Abstract

Twenty-nine samples of two cucumber types (Cucumis sativus L.) were evaluated to determine the amino acid, tannin, soluble protein, soluble sugar, Vc, nitrate nitrogen contents and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Cucumber variety differences in amino acid, tannin, soluble proteins, et al., were [...] Read more.

Twenty-nine samples of two cucumber types (Cucumis sativus L.) were evaluated to determine the amino acid, tannin, soluble protein, soluble sugar, Vc, nitrate nitrogen contents and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Cucumber variety differences in amino acid, tannin, soluble proteins, et al., were significant (p < 0.05). The VOCs were derived by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). A total of 67 VOCs were identified, including 24 aldehydes, 13 alcohols, 12 ketones, 12 alkenes and 6 other compounds. (E, Z)-2,6-Nonadienal, (E)-2-Nonenal and (E)-6-Nonenal were the three most abundant volatiles. A total of 21 VOCs were present in all 29 cultivars. An average of 45 kinds of VOCs were identified in each cultivar. Principal component analysis (PCA) clustered the 29 cucumber cultivars into five groups. Partial least-squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) indicated that the European type was separated from the South China type across PLS1. Furthermore, 25 key differential volatiles for distinguishing 29 cultivars and 23 key differential volatiles for differentiating between South China and European types were identified, respectively. These results provide information for the development of new cultivars with high nutritional quality and intense flavor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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15 pages, 3839 KB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamics of Lactic Acid Bacteria Dominance in Sour Bamboo Shoot Fermentation: Roles of Interspecies Interactions and Organic Acid Stress

by Xinxin Zhang, Changfeng Zhang, Menglian Gong, Pao Li, Hui Tang, Liwen Jiang and Yang Liu

Foods 2025, 14(20), 3481; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14203481 - 12 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1312

Abstract

To elucidate the mechanisms underlying the formation of the bacterial community predominantly composed of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in sour bamboo shoots, the dynamics of the bacterial community structure and the influence of organic acids on the growth of dominant species were investigated. [...] Read more.

To elucidate the mechanisms underlying the formation of the bacterial community predominantly composed of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in sour bamboo shoots, the dynamics of the bacterial community structure and the influence of organic acids on the growth of dominant species were investigated. The results showed that the dominant bacteria in sour bamboo shoots changed from Enterobacteriaceae at first to LAB after fermentation. Correlation analysis revealed that organic acids, especially lactic acid and acetic acid, had great effects on bacteria. Even low concentrations of organic acids had negative effects on the growth of Enterobacter asburiae, while LAB exhibited remarkable tolerance to 8 g/L of organic acids. Notably, Levilactobacillus spicheri displayed a normal growth rate during incubation in medium containing 4 g/L of malic acid for 48 h. This study clarified the regulation of organic acids on bacterial community formation and provided a new understanding for bacterial control in traditional fermented foods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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43 pages, 5132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Technique Flavoromics for Identifying Key Differential Volatile Compounds Underlying Sensory Profiles in Lager Beers

by Yiyuan Chen, He Huang, Ruiyang Yin, Xiuli He, Liyun Guo, Yumei Song, Dongrui Zhao, Jinyuan Sun, Jinchen Li, Mingquan Huang and Baoguo Sun

Foods 2025, 14(19), 3428; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14193428 - 5 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2049

Abstract

In this study, inter-brand variations in volatile flavor compound profiles of four lager beers were systematically investigated by integrating sensory evaluation with GC-MS, GC×GC-TOF-MS, and GC-O-MS. A total of 594 volatile compounds were identified, of which 71 with odor activity values (OAV) ≥ [...] Read more.

In this study, inter-brand variations in volatile flavor compound profiles of four lager beers were systematically investigated by integrating sensory evaluation with GC-MS, GC×GC-TOF-MS, and GC-O-MS. A total of 594 volatile compounds were identified, of which 71 with odor activity values (OAV) ≥ 1 were found to contribute directly to aroma expression. Additionally, 59 compounds with taste activity values (TAV) ≥ 1 were identified and may also contribute to taste perception. Furthermore, 53 aroma-active compounds were confirmed through GC-O-MS, providing additional evidence for their sensory contribution. Partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), correlation analysis, and flavor addition experiments revealed brand-specific differential flavor compounds. Ultimately, twenty key differential flavor compounds, encompassing esters, alcohols, aromatic compounds, acids, lactones, and others, were confirmed to contribute to fruity, floral, burnt, and sweet notes. Phenethyl alcohol, with concentrations varying from 1377.1 mg/L in QD to 3297.5 mg/L in HR, showed a more than 2.4-fold difference across brands and was strongly associated with fruity (r = 0.553) and floral (r = 0.564) aroma. These compounds acted in combination to shape distinct aroma profiles. This study provides a molecular-level basis for understanding lager beer flavor and offers practical guidance for targeted flavor modulation in brewing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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Review

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36 pages, 14317 KB

Open AccessReview

Ecological Risks in Daqu Storage and Their Impact on Baijiu Flavor: Precision Process Strategies for Damage Mitigation While Preserving Aroma

by Dandan Song, Chunlin Zhang, Yashuai Wu and Liang Yang

Foods 2026, 15(7), 1195; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15071195 - 2 Apr 2026

Viewed by 583

Abstract

Daqu functions as a core saccharifying and fermenting starter in Baijiu production and acts as a complex microecological reactor in open solid-state fermentation. The formation of Baijiu flavor is closely associated with microbial community assembly, enzymatic activities, and metabolic interactions occurring within Daqu. [...] Read more.

Daqu functions as a core saccharifying and fermenting starter in Baijiu production and acts as a complex microecological reactor in open solid-state fermentation. The formation of Baijiu flavor is closely associated with microbial community assembly, enzymatic activities, and metabolic interactions occurring within Daqu. However, the open production environment also exposes the Daqu system to multiple external disturbances that may influence its microecological stability and fermentation performance. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the microecology of Daqu, focusing on microbial succession, metabolic pathways related to flavor formation, and environmental factors affecting Daqu quality. Particular attention is given to how external disturbances during production and storage may influence microbial communities, enzymatic functions, and aroma compound formation. Based on current knowledge, a conceptual framework linking environmental factors, microbial community dynamics, metabolic activity, and flavor outcomes is proposed. In addition, strategies for maintaining microecological stability and ensuring flavor consistency are discussed, including environmental management, process optimization, physical control technologies, and integrated quality monitoring systems. Emphasis is placed on combining process control with modern analytical approaches such as multi-omics technologies and process analytical technologies (PAT) to improve traceability and precision management during Daqu production. Overall, this review provides a systematic perspective on the relationships among Daqu microecology, process conditions, and flavor formation and highlights future research directions for achieving stable and controllable Baijiu fermentation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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45 pages, 5703 KB

Open AccessReview

From Artisan Experience to Scientific Elucidation: Preparation Processes, Microbial Diversity, and Food Applications of Chinese Traditional Fermentation Starters (Qu)

by Dandan Song, Xian Zhong, Yashuai Wu, Jiaqi Guo, Lulu Song and Liang Yang

Foods 2025, 14(22), 3814; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14223814 - 7 Nov 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2975

Abstract

Background: Qu was the core starter of traditional Chinese fermentation and had long relied on artisan experience, which led to limited batch stability and standardization. This review organized the preparation processes, microbial diversity, and application patterns of qu in foods from experience to [...] Read more.

Background: Qu was the core starter of traditional Chinese fermentation and had long relied on artisan experience, which led to limited batch stability and standardization. This review organized the preparation processes, microbial diversity, and application patterns of qu in foods from experience to science perspective. Methods: This work summarized typical process parameters for daqu, xiaoqu, hongqu, wheat bran or jiangqu, douchi qu, and qu for mold curd blocks used for furu. Parameters covered raw material moisture, bed thickness, aeration or turning, drying, final moisture, and classification by peak temperature. Multi-omics evidence was used to analyze the coupling of temperature regime, community assembly, and functional differentiation. Indicators for pigment or enzyme production efficiency and safety control such as citrinin in hongqu were included. Results: Daqu showed low, medium, and high temperature regimes. Thermal history governed differences in communities and enzyme profiles and determined downstream fermentation fitness. Xiaoqu rapidly established a three-stage symbiotic network of Rhizopus, Saccharomyces, and lactic acid bacteria, which supported integrated saccharification and alcohol fermentation. Hongqu centered on Monascus and achieved coordinated pigment and aroma formation with toxin risk control through programmed control of temperature, humidity, and final moisture. Wheat bran or jiangqu served as an enzyme production engine for salt-tolerant fermentation, and the combined effects of heat and humidity during the qu period, aeration, and bed loading determined hydrolysis efficiency in salt. Douchi and furu mold curd blocks used thin-layer cultivation and near-saturated humidity to achieve stable mold growth and reproducible interfacial moisture. Conclusions: Parameterizing and online monitoring of key variables in qu making built a process fingerprint with peak temperature, heating rate, and moisture rebound curve at its core. Standardization and functional customization guided by temperature regime, community, and function were the key path for the transition of qu from workshop practice to industry and from experience to science. This approach provided replicable solutions for flavor consistency and safety in alcoholic beverages, sauces, vinegars, and soybean products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensory Detection and Analysis in Food Industry)

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