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Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes

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A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Molecular Endocrinology and Metabolism".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2020) | Viewed by 55870

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Prof. Dr. Piero Marchetti

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Guest Editor

Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
Interests: Clinical diabetes; Pancreas transplantation; Insulin secretion; Endocrine pancreas; Pancreatic beta cells; Beta cell transcriptomics; Beta cell proteomics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Romano Regazzi

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Co-Guest Editor

Department of Fundamental Neurosciences, University of Lausanne, 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
Interests: β-cell dysfunction; noncoding RNAs; islet
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

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Dear Colleagues,

Pancreatic beta cell failure is key to the onset and progression of type 2 diabetes (T2D; the most common form of this heterogeneous disease), due to the interplay of genetic and environmental determinants. Loss of identity, secretory dysfunction, increased demise and meager regeneration are the main shortcomings of the beta cells in T2D, leading to insufficient insulin release and increased blood glucose levels. Over the past few years, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying beta cell defects in T2D has greatly expanded. Histological, functional, survival, genetic, epigenetic and “omics” data have made it possible to elaborate on the cellular and molecular processes responsible for beta cell sickness. Yet, the scenario remains unclear, due to the complexity of the beta cells and the variability of some of their phenotypic features. This Special Issue has the ambition to reconcile some of the diverse views currently available, with its main focus on the human setting. Molecular “sightseeings” will be interpreted in respect of the commitments of key intracellular compartments, in order to give a more integrated overview of the beta cell interior. Hints on potential prevention and targeted treatment strategies will also be provided, as an attempt to move our knowledge of beta cell fatigue in T2D toward translational applications.

Prof. Piero Marchetti
Guest Editor
Prof. Romano Regazzi
Co-Guest Editor

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Keywords

type 2 diabetes
insulin secretion
pancreatic beta cells
beta cell “omics”
Golgi apparatus
endoplasmic reticulum
mitochondria
exocytosis

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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26 pages, 12429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Human Islet Microtissues as an In Vitro and an In Vivo Model System for Diabetes

by Joan Mir-Coll, Tilo Moede, Meike Paschen, Aparna Neelakandhan, Ismael Valladolid-Acebes, Barbara Leibiger, Adelinn Biernath, Carina Ämmälä, Ingo B. Leibiger, Burcak Yesildag and Per-Olof Berggren

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1813; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041813 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4958

Abstract

Loss of pancreatic β-cell function is a critical event in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. However, studies of its underlying mechanisms as well as the discovery of novel targets and therapies have been hindered due to limitations in available experimental models. In this study we exploited the stable viability and function of standardized human islet microtissues to develop a disease-relevant, scalable, and reproducible model of β-cell dysfunction by exposing them to long-term glucotoxicity and glucolipotoxicity. Moreover, by establishing a method for highly-efficient and homogeneous viral transduction, we were able to monitor the loss of functional β-cell mass in vivo by transplanting reporter human islet microtissues into the anterior chamber of the eye of immune-deficient mice exposed to a diabetogenic diet for 12 weeks. This newly developed in vitro model as well as the described in vivo methodology represent a new set of tools that will facilitate the study of β-cell failure in type 2 diabetes and would accelerate the discovery of novel therapeutic agents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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15 pages, 2254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metformin Preserves β-Cell Compensation in Insulin Secretion and Mass Expansion in Prediabetic Nile Rats

by Hui Huang, Bradi R. Lorenz, Paula Horn Zelmanovitz and Catherine B. Chan

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(1), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22010421 - 3 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3500

Abstract

Prediabetes is a high-risk condition for type 2 diabetes (T2D). Pancreatic β-cells adapt to impaired glucose regulation in prediabetes by increasing insulin secretion and β-cell mass expansion. In people with prediabetes, metformin has been shown to prevent prediabetes conversion to diabetes. However, emerging evidence indicates that metformin has negative effects on β-cell function and survival. Our previous study established the Nile rat (NR) as a model for prediabetes, recapitulating characteristics of human β-cell compensation in function and mass expansion. In this study, we investigated the action of metformin on β-cells in vivo and in vitro. A 7-week metformin treatment improved glucose tolerance by reducing hepatic glucose output and enhancing insulin secretion. Although high-dose metformin inhibited β-cell glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in vitro, stimulation of β-cell insulin secretion was preserved in metformin-treated NRs via an indirect mechanism. Moreover, β-cells in NRs receiving metformin exhibited increased endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperones and alleviated apoptotic unfold protein response (UPR) without changes in the expression of cell identity genes. Additionally, metformin did not suppress β-cell mass compensation or proliferation. Taken together, despite the conflicting role indicated by in vitro studies, administration of metformin does not exert a negative effect on β-cell function or cell mass and, instead, early metformin treatment may help protect β-cells from exhaustion and decompensation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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24 pages, 4150 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ligand-Specific Factors Influencing GLP-1 Receptor Post-Endocytic Trafficking and Degradation in Pancreatic Beta Cells

by Zijian Fang, Shiqian Chen, Yusman Manchanda, Stavroula Bitsi, Philip Pickford, Alessia David, Maria M. Shchepinova, Ivan R. Corrêa Jr, David J. Hodson, Johannes Broichhagen, Edward W. Tate, Frank Reimann, Victoria Salem, Guy A. Rutter, Tricia Tan, Stephen R. Bloom, Alejandra Tomas and Ben Jones

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(21), 8404; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21218404 - 9 Nov 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5941

Abstract

The glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) is an important regulator of blood glucose homeostasis. Ligand-specific differences in membrane trafficking of the GLP-1R influence its signalling properties and therapeutic potential in type 2 diabetes. Here, we have evaluated how different factors combine to control the post-endocytic trafficking of GLP-1R to recycling versus degradative pathways. Experiments were performed in primary islet cells, INS-1 832/3 clonal beta cells and HEK293 cells, using biorthogonal labelling of GLP-1R to determine its localisation and degradation after treatment with GLP-1, exendin-4 and several further GLP-1R agonist peptides. We also characterised the effect of a rare GLP1R coding variant, T149M, and the role of endosomal peptidase endothelin-converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1), in GLP1R trafficking. Our data reveal how treatment with GLP-1 versus exendin-4 is associated with preferential GLP-1R targeting towards a recycling pathway. GLP-1, but not exendin-4, is a substrate for ECE-1, and the resultant propensity to intra-endosomal degradation, in conjunction with differences in binding affinity, contributes to alterations in GLP-1R trafficking behaviours and degradation. The T149M GLP-1R variant shows reduced signalling and internalisation responses, which is likely to be due to disruption of the cytoplasmic region that couples to intracellular effectors. These observations provide insights into how ligand- and genotype-specific factors can influence GLP-1R trafficking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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Review

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22 pages, 2531 KiB

Open AccessReview

Islet Regeneration: Endogenous and Exogenous Approaches

by Fiona M. Docherty and Lori Sussel

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(7), 3306; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22073306 - 24 Mar 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4804

Abstract

Both type 1 and type 2 diabetes are characterized by a progressive loss of beta cell mass that contributes to impaired glucose homeostasis. Although an optimal treatment option would be to simply replace the lost cells, it is now well established that unlike many other organs, the adult pancreas has limited regenerative potential. For this reason, significant research efforts are focusing on methods to induce beta cell proliferation (replication of existing beta cells), promote beta cell formation from alternative endogenous cell sources (neogenesis), and/or generate beta cells from pluripotent stem cells. In this article, we will review (i) endogenous mechanisms of beta cell regeneration during steady state, stress and disease; (ii) efforts to stimulate endogenous regeneration and transdifferentiation; and (iii) exogenous methods of beta cell generation and transplantation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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11 pages, 880 KiB

Open AccessReview

Cell-Free DNA Fragments as Biomarkers of Islet β-Cell Death in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes

by Marilyn Arosemena, Farah A. Meah, Kieren J. Mather, Sarah A. Tersey and Raghavendra G. Mirmira

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 2151; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22042151 - 21 Feb 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2972

Abstract

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) typically occurs in the setting of obesity and insulin resistance, where hyperglycemia is associated with decreased pancreatic β-cell mass and function. Loss of β-cell mass has variably been attributed to β-cell dedifferentiation and/or death. In recent years, it has been proposed that circulating epigenetically modified DNA fragments arising from β cells might be able to report on the potential occurrence of β-cell death in diabetes. Here, we review published literature of DNA-based β-cell death biomarkers that have been evaluated in human cohorts of islet transplantation, type 1 diabetes, and obesity and type 2 diabetes. In addition, we provide new data on the applicability of one of these biomarkers (cell free unmethylated INS DNA) in adult cohorts across a spectrum from obesity to T2D, in which no significant differences were observed, and compare these findings to those previously published in youth cohorts where differences were observed. Our analysis of the literature and our own data suggest that β-cell death may occur in subsets of individuals with obesity and T2D, however a more sensitive method or refined study designs are needed to provide better alignment of sampling with disease progression events. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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25 pages, 4000 KiB

Open AccessReview

Conventional and Unconventional Mechanisms by which Exocytosis Proteins Oversee β-cell Function and Protection

by Diti Chatterjee Bhowmick, Miwon Ahn, Eunjin Oh, Rajakrishnan Veluthakal and Debbie C. Thurmond

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1833; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041833 - 12 Feb 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4057

Abstract

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is one of the prominent causes of morbidity and mortality in the United States and beyond, reaching global pandemic proportions. One hallmark of T2D is dysfunctional glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from the pancreatic β-cell. Insulin is secreted via the recruitment of insulin secretory granules to the plasma membrane, where the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) and SNARE regulators work together to dock the secretory granules and release insulin into the circulation. SNARE proteins and their regulators include the Syntaxins, SNAPs, Sec1/Munc18, VAMPs, and double C2-domain proteins. Recent studies using genomics, proteomics, and biochemical approaches have linked deficiencies of exocytosis proteins with the onset and progression of T2D. Promising results are also emerging wherein restoration or enhancement of certain exocytosis proteins to β-cells improves whole-body glucose homeostasis, enhances β-cell function, and surprisingly, protection of β-cell mass. Intriguingly, overexpression and knockout studies have revealed novel functions of certain exocytosis proteins, like Syntaxin 4, suggesting that exocytosis proteins can impact a variety of pathways, including inflammatory signaling and aging. In this review, we present the conventional and unconventional functions of β-cell exocytosis proteins in normal physiology and T2D and describe how these insights might improve clinical care for T2D. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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16 pages, 2147 KiB

Open AccessReview

Crosstalk between Macrophages and Pancreatic β-Cells in Islet Development, Homeostasis and Disease

by Cristina Cosentino and Romano Regazzi

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1765; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041765 - 10 Feb 2021

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6365

Abstract

Macrophages are highly heterogeneous and plastic immune cells with peculiar characteristics dependent on their origin and microenvironment. Following pathogen infection or damage, circulating monocytes can be recruited in different tissues where they differentiate into macrophages. Stimuli present in the surrounding milieu induce the polarisation of macrophages towards a pro-inflammatory or anti-inflammatory profile, mediating inflammatory or homeostatic responses, respectively. However, macrophages can also derive from embryonic hematopoietic precursors and reside in specific tissues, actively participating in the development and the homeostasis in physiological conditions. Pancreatic islet resident macrophages are present from the prenatal stages onwards and show specific surface markers and functions. They localise in close proximity to β-cells, being exquisite sensors of their secretory ability and viability. Over the years, the crucial role of macrophages in β-cell differentiation and homeostasis has been highlighted. In addition, macrophages are emerging as central players in the initiation of autoimmune insulitis in type 1 diabetes and in the low-grade chronic inflammation characteristic of obesity and type 2 diabetes pathogenesis. The present work reviews the current knowledge in the field, with a particular focus on the mechanisms of communication between β-cells and macrophages that have been described so far. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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18 pages, 993 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Oxidative Stress in Pancreatic β Cell Dysfunction in Diabetes

by Natsuki Eguchi, Nosratola D. Vaziri, Donald C. Dafoe and Hirohito Ichii

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1509; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041509 - 3 Feb 2021

Cited by 151 | Viewed by 7256

Abstract

Diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by inappropriately elevated glucose levels as a result of impaired pancreatic β cell function and insulin resistance. Extensive studies have been conducted to elucidate the mechanism involved in the development of β cell failure and death under diabetic conditions such as hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and inflammation. Of the plethora of proposed mechanisms, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress have been shown to play a central role in promoting β cell dysfunction. It has become more evident in recent years that these 3 factors are closely interrelated and importantly aggravate each other. Oxidative stress in particular is of great interest to β cell health and survival as it has been shown that β cells exhibit lower antioxidative capacity. Therefore, this review will focus on discussing factors that contribute to the development of oxidative stress in pancreatic β cells and explore the downstream effects of oxidative stress on β cell function and health. Furthermore, antioxidative capacity of β cells to counteract these effects will be discussed along with new approaches focused on preserving β cells under oxidative conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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16 pages, 1412 KiB

Open AccessReview

Circular RNAs as Novel Regulators of β-Cell Functions under Physiological and Pathological Conditions

by Flora Brozzi and Romano Regazzi

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(4), 1503; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22041503 - 3 Feb 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3267

Abstract

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) constitute a large class of non-coding RNAs characterized by a covalently closed circular structure. They originate during mRNA maturation through a modification of the splicing process and, according to the included sequences, are classified as Exonic, Intronic, or Exonic-Intronic. CircRNAs can act by sequestering microRNAs, by regulating the activity of specific proteins, and/or by being translated in functional peptides. There is emerging evidence indicating that dysregulation of circRNA expression is associated with pathological conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive and updated view of the most abundant circRNAs expressed in pancreatic islet cells, some of which originating from key genes controlling the differentiation and the activity of insulin-secreting cells or from diabetes susceptibility genes. We will particularly focus on the role of a group of circRNAs that contribute to the regulation of β-cell functions and that display altered expression in the islets of rodent diabetes models and of type 2 diabetic patients. We will also provide an outlook of the unanswered questions regarding circRNA biology and discuss the potential role of circRNAs as biomarkers for β-cell demise and diabetes development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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14 pages, 1549 KiB

Open AccessReview

Importance of Both Imprinted Genes and Functional Heterogeneity in Pancreatic Beta Cells: Is There a Link?

by Pauline Chabosseau, Guy A. Rutter and Steven J. Millership

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(3), 1000; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22031000 - 20 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3249

Abstract

Diabetes mellitus now affects more than 400 million individuals worldwide, with significant impacts on the lives of those affected and associated socio-economic costs. Although defects in insulin secretion underlie all forms of the disease, the molecular mechanisms which drive them are still poorly understood. Subsets of specialised beta cells have, in recent years, been suggested to play critical roles in “pacing” overall islet activity. The molecular nature of these cells, the means through which their identity is established and the changes which may contribute to their functional demise and “loss of influence” in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes are largely unknown. Genomic imprinting involves the selective silencing of one of the two parental alleles through DNA methylation and modified imprinted gene expression is involved in a number of diseases. Loss of expression, or loss of imprinting, can be shown in mouse models to lead to defects in beta cell function and abnormal insulin secretion. In the present review we survey the evidence that altered expression of imprinted genes contribute to loss of beta cell function, the importance of beta cell heterogeneity in normal and disease states, and hypothesise whether there is a direct link between the two. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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18 pages, 7434 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Landscape of microRNAs in βCell: Between Phenotype Maintenance and Protection

by Giuseppina Emanuela Grieco, Noemi Brusco, Giada Licata, Daniela Fignani, Caterina Formichi, Laura Nigi, Guido Sebastiani and Francesco Dotta

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(2), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22020803 - 14 Jan 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3386

Abstract

Diabetes mellitus is a group of heterogeneous metabolic disorders characterized by chronic hyperglycaemia mainly due to pancreatic β cell death and/or dysfunction, caused by several types of stress such as glucotoxicity, lipotoxicity and inflammation. Different patho-physiological mechanisms driving β cell response to these stresses are tightly regulated by microRNAs (miRNAs), a class of negative regulators of gene expression, involved in pathogenic mechanisms occurring in diabetes and in its complications. In this review, we aim to shed light on the most important miRNAs regulating the maintenance and the robustness of β cell identity, as well as on those miRNAs involved in the pathogenesis of the two main forms of diabetes mellitus, i.e., type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Additionally, we acknowledge that the understanding of miRNAs-regulated molecular mechanisms is fundamental in order to develop specific and effective strategies based on miRNAs as therapeutic targets, employing innovative molecules. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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27 pages, 6740 KiB

Open AccessReview

tRNA Biology in the Pathogenesis of Diabetes: Role of Genetic and Environmental Factors

by Maria Nicol Arroyo, Jonathan Alex Green, Miriam Cnop and Mariana Igoillo-Esteve

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(2), 496; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22020496 - 6 Jan 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4641

Abstract

The global rise in type 2 diabetes results from a combination of genetic predisposition with environmental assaults that negatively affect insulin action in peripheral tissues and impair pancreatic β-cell function and survival. Nongenetic heritability of metabolic traits may be an important contributor to the diabetes epidemic. Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are noncoding RNA molecules that play a crucial role in protein synthesis. tRNAs also have noncanonical functions through which they control a variety of biological processes. Genetic and environmental effects on tRNAs have emerged as novel contributors to the pathogenesis of diabetes. Indeed, altered tRNA aminoacylation, modification, and fragmentation are associated with β-cell failure, obesity, and insulin resistance. Moreover, diet-induced tRNA fragments have been linked with intergenerational inheritance of metabolic traits. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of how perturbations in tRNA biology play a role in the pathogenesis of monogenic and type 2 diabetes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Journey inside the Beta Cells in Type 2 Diabetes)

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