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J. Compos. Sci.
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Fire Safety of Structural Composites
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Fire Safety of Structural Composites

A special issue of Journal of Composites Science (ISSN 2504-477X). This special issue belongs to the section "Composites Manufacturing and Processing".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 15675

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Baljinder Kandola

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Materials Research and Innovation, The University of Bolton, Deane Road, Bolton BL3 5AB, UK
Interests: flammability and fire retardancy of polymers; textiles and fibre-reinforced thermoplastic/thermoset composites; thermal degradation of polymers; high performance textiles; biocomposites; development of proactive flame retardant formulations/materials; nanocomposites; heat and mass transfer in polymers and composites; numerical modelling of combustion induced mechanical properties degradation of polymers
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Fibre-reinforced polymer composite materials, while competing with metals for their mechanical properties, are susceptible to combustion and fire damage, resulting in loss of structutal integrity. The fire safety of these materials is a major issue and, depending on applications, polymer composites must pass some type of regulatory fire test. The two polymeric components of the composites, resin (organic) and fibre (inorganic and/or organic), behave differently in a fire, depending on their respective thermal stabilities. Conventionally, in rigid composite structures, inorganic fibres like glass, carbon or high-performance fibres such as aramids are used as a reinforcing element, hence, no attempt is made to fire-retard them further. Therefore, fire safety relies on the resin and is based on the addition of a fire retardant component in the polymer backbone or of fire retardant chemicals. However, depending upon the loading level, fire retardants can negatively affect the mechanical properties of the composites. An alternative method of fire protection consists in the application of a thermal insulator or a fire-retardant coating. This Special Issue of the Journal of Composite Science aims to gather papers on the recent advances in composites’ fire safety, based on experimental and/or mathematically modelled approaches. 

Prof. Baljinder Kandola
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Journal of Composites Science is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Resins
  • Fibres
  • Fire Retardants
  • Composite
  • Nanocomposite
  • Surface coatings
  • Thermal insulation
  • Fire resistance
  • Post-fire mechanical properies
  • Heat transfer
  • Smoke release
  • Mathematical modelling and computational simulations

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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12 pages, 3808 KiB  
Article
Thermoplastic Composites: Modelling Melting, Decomposition and Combustion of Matrix Polymers
by Mamadou Ndiaye, Peter Myler and Baljinder K. Kandola
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6010027 - 12 Jan 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2176
Abstract
In thermoplastic composites, the polymeric matrix upon exposure to heat may melt, decompose and deform prior to burning, as opposed to the char-forming matrices of thermoset composites, which retain their shape until reaching a temperature at which decomposition and ignition occur. In this [...] Read more.
In thermoplastic composites, the polymeric matrix upon exposure to heat may melt, decompose and deform prior to burning, as opposed to the char-forming matrices of thermoset composites, which retain their shape until reaching a temperature at which decomposition and ignition occur. In this work, a theoretical and numerical heat transfer model to simulate temperature variations during the melting, decomposition and early stages of burning of commonly used thermoplastic matrices is proposed. The scenario includes exposing polymeric slabs to one-sided radiant heat in a cone calorimeter with heat fluxes ranging from 15 to 35 kW/m2. A one-dimensional finite difference method based on the Stefan approach involving phase-changing and moving boundary conditions was developed by considering convective and radiative heat transfer at the exposed side of the polymer samples. The polymers chosen to experimentally validate the simulated results included polypropylene (PP), polyester (PET), and polyamide 6 (PA6). The predicted results match well with the experimental results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Safety of Structural Composites)
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14 pages, 4458 KiB  
Article
Flame Retardancy of Lightweight Sandwich Composites
by Fabienne Samyn, Roland Adanmenou, Serge Bourbigot, Sophie Duquesne, Maude Jimenez, Marieke Van Marle and Sebastiaan Weij
J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(10), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5100274 - 14 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1541
Abstract
This study proposes an innovative solution to flame-retard a sandwich composite made of unsaturated polyester resin, glass fibre skins and polyester nonwoven core material. The strategy uses the core material as flame-retardant carrier, while the resin is also flame-retarded with aluminum trihydroxide (ATH). [...] Read more.
This study proposes an innovative solution to flame-retard a sandwich composite made of unsaturated polyester resin, glass fibre skins and polyester nonwoven core material. The strategy uses the core material as flame-retardant carrier, while the resin is also flame-retarded with aluminum trihydroxide (ATH). A screening of the fire-retardant performances of the core materials, covered with different types of phosphorous flame-retardant additives (phosphate, phosphinate, phosphonate), was performed using cone calorimetry. The best candidate was selected and evaluated in the sandwich panel. Great performances were obtained with ammonium polyphosphate (AP422) at 262 g/m2. The core material, when tested alone, did not ignite, and when used in the laminate, improved the fire behaviour by decreasing the peak of heat release rate (pHRR) and the total heat release (THR): the second peak in HRR observed for the references (full glass monolith and sandwich with the untreated core) was suppressed in this case. This improvement is attributed to the interaction occurring between the two FR additives, which leads to the formation of aluminophosphates, as shown using Electron Probe Micro-Analysis (EPMA), X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and solid-state 31P Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). The influence of the FR add-on on the core, as well as the ATH loading in the matrix, was studied separately to optimize the material performances in terms of smoke and heat release. The best compromise was obtained using AP422 at 182 g/m2 and 160 phr of ATH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Safety of Structural Composites)
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17 pages, 7239 KiB  
Article
Post-Fire Mechanical Properties of Concrete Reinforced with Spanish Broom Fibers
by Sandra Juradin, Lidia Karla Vranješ, Dražan Jozić and Ivica Boko
J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(10), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5100265 - 11 Oct 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1597
Abstract
In this study, we conducted an initial investigation of the post-fire mechanical properties of concrete reinforced with Spanish broom fibers. The mechanical properties were determined at room temperature, and the post-fire mechanical properties were determined at elevated temperature, so that the fire resistance [...] Read more.
In this study, we conducted an initial investigation of the post-fire mechanical properties of concrete reinforced with Spanish broom fibers. The mechanical properties were determined at room temperature, and the post-fire mechanical properties were determined at elevated temperature, so that the fire resistance of the concrete could be determined. Five mixtures were considered: three with differently treated Spanish broom fibers, a polypropylene fiber mixture, and a reference concrete mixture. The concrete and reinforced concrete samples were first dried to 100 °C, then heated to 400 °C, and left to cool to room temperature. The samples were tested immediately and 96 h after cooling. The compressive strength, weight loss, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and dynamic modulus of elasticity were determined and compared. The cross-sectional images of the concrete samples captured through an optical microscope were observed and analyzed. The changes in fiber structure were monitored by TG/DTG analysis. The results of the study indicate that even the reference concrete mixture did not have satisfactory residual properties. The reinforced concretes did not improve the residual properties of the reference concrete, but reduced the spalling and explosive failure performance under a compressive load. The concrete reinforced with Spanish broom fibers showed improved residual properties compared with concrete reinforced with polypropylene fibers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Safety of Structural Composites)
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19 pages, 5391 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Some Phosphorus-Containing Fire Retardants on the Properties of Glass Fibre-Reinforced Composite Laminates Made from Blends of Unsaturated Polyester and Phenolic Resins
by Latha Krishnan, Baljinder. K. Kandola and John R. Ebdon
J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(10), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5100258 - 28 Sep 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1682
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of phosphorus fire retardants (FRs) in matrices from co-cured blends of an unsaturated polyester (UP) with inherently fire-retardant phenolic resoles (PH) on the mechanical and flammability properties of resultant glass fibre-reinforced composites. Three different phenolic resoles with UP [...] Read more.
This study investigated the effects of phosphorus fire retardants (FRs) in matrices from co-cured blends of an unsaturated polyester (UP) with inherently fire-retardant phenolic resoles (PH) on the mechanical and flammability properties of resultant glass fibre-reinforced composites. Three different phenolic resoles with UP have been used: (i) an ethanol soluble (PH-S), (ii) an epoxy-functionalised (PH-Ep), and (iii) an allyl-functionalised resin (PH-Al) with two different phosphorus FRs: resorcinol bis (diphenyl phosphate) (RDP) and 9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO). The flammabilities of the resultant composites were evaluated using cone calorimetry and the UL-94 test. Cone calorimetric results showed reductions in peak heat release rate (PHRR) and total heat released (THR) as expected compared to those of UP and respective UP/PH composite laminates without FRs. UL-94 tests results showed that while all composites had HB rating, FR containing samples self-extinguished after removal of the flame. The mechanical properties of the composites were evaluated using flexural, tensile and impact tests. All FRs reduced the mechanical properties, and the reduction in mechanical properties was more severe in UP/PH-S (least compatible blends) composites with FRs than in UP/PH-Al (most compatible blends) composites with FRs. Amongst the different composites, those from UP/PH-Al with DOPO showed the best fire retardancy with little deterioration of mechanical performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Safety of Structural Composites)
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24 pages, 6911 KiB  
Article
Damage by Improvised Incendiary Devices on Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites
by Sebastian Eibl
J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5030072 - 5 Mar 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1883
Abstract
This study focuses on short-term thermal degradation of polymer matrix composites by one-sided impact of improvised incendiary devices (IID). Specimens of two commercial composites HexPly® 8552/IM7 and M18-1/G939 with various thicknesses (1–8 mm) are systematically investigated as well as sandwich structures thereof, [...] Read more.
This study focuses on short-term thermal degradation of polymer matrix composites by one-sided impact of improvised incendiary devices (IID). Specimens of two commercial composites HexPly® 8552/IM7 and M18-1/G939 with various thicknesses (1–8 mm) are systematically investigated as well as sandwich structures thereof, applying various amounts of fire accelerant predominantly in laboratory scale fire tests. Results of preceding large-scale fire tests with IIDs justify the chosen conditions for the laboratory-scale fire tests. The aim is to correlate the amount of fire accelerant with heat damage and residual mechanical strength. Thermal damage is characterized visually and by ultrasonic testing, infrared spectroscopy, and residual interlaminar shear strength. Matrix degradation and combustion only contribute to the overall amount of released heat by the fire accelerant for thin and especially vertically aligned panels as tested by a cone calorimeter (without electrical heating), but not for horizontally orientated and thicker panels. Degradation processes are discussed in detail. Protective effects are observed for typical coatings, a copper mesh applied for protection against lightning strike, combinations thereof as well as an intumescent coating. Especially sandwich structures are prone to severe damage by assaults with IID, such as Molotov cocktails. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Safety of Structural Composites)
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23 pages, 11092 KiB  
Article
Fire Protective Surface Coating Containing Nanoparticles for Marine Composite Laminates
by Léa Floch, Bianca Da Cruz Chiochetta, Laurent Ferry, Didier Perrin and Patrick Ienny
J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5010006 - 30 Dec 2020
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2961
Abstract
A poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-based coating containing ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and sepiolite nanofillers (SP) and supported by a glass fabric was developed to fire-protect a glass-fiber-reinforced unsaturated-polyester-based (UP) polymer (GFRP). The fire behavior and thermal stability of the PVA coatings were characterized using thermogravimetric [...] Read more.
A poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-based coating containing ammonium polyphosphate (APP) and sepiolite nanofillers (SP) and supported by a glass fabric was developed to fire-protect a glass-fiber-reinforced unsaturated-polyester-based (UP) polymer (GFRP). The fire behavior and thermal stability of the PVA coatings were characterized using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and a cone calorimeter. The coatings’ residues were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results from the cone calorimeter showed that the addition of sepiolite significantly improves the flame retardancy of PVA/APP/SP coatings. The addition of both additives promoted the formation of a cohesive layer composed of a silico-phosphate structure resulting from the reactivity between APP and SP. The fire resistance of the composite laminate protected by PVA coatings was evaluated using a cone calorimeter by measuring the temperature of the back face. Photogrammetry was used to assess the swelling of residues after heat exposure. The interaction between APP and SP in PVA coating leads to the formation of an effective thermal barrier layer. The presence of SP reduces the layer expansion but greatly decreases the backside temperature during the initial period of exposure. The effect was assigned to high thermal stability of the layer and its ability to dissipate heat by re-radiation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Safety of Structural Composites)
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Review

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17 pages, 2230 KiB  
Review
State-of-the-Art Review on Experimental Investigations of Textile-Reinforced Concrete Exposed to High Temperatures
by Panagiotis Kapsalis, Tine Tysmans, Danny Van Hemelrijck and Thanasis Triantafillou
J. Compos. Sci. 2021, 5(11), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs5110290 - 5 Nov 2021
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2765
Abstract
Textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) is a promising composite material with enormous potential in structural applications because it offers the possibility to construct slender, lightweight, and robust elements. However, despite the good heat resistance of the inorganic matrices and the well-established knowledge on the high-temperature [...] Read more.
Textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) is a promising composite material with enormous potential in structural applications because it offers the possibility to construct slender, lightweight, and robust elements. However, despite the good heat resistance of the inorganic matrices and the well-established knowledge on the high-temperature performance of the commonly used fibrous reinforcements, their application in TRC elements with very small thicknesses makes their effectiveness against thermal loads questionable. This paper presents a state-of-the-art review on the thermomechanical behavior of TRC, focusing on its mechanical performance both during and after exposure to high temperatures. The available knowledge from experimental investigations where TRC has been tested in thermomechanical conditions as a standalone material is compiled, and the results are compared. This comparative study identifies the key parameters that determine the mechanical response of TRC to increased temperatures, being the surface treatment of the textiles and the combination of thermal and mechanical loads. It is concluded that the uncoated carbon fibers are the most promising solution for a fire-safe TRC application. However, the knowledge gaps are still large, mainly due to the inconsistency of the testing methods and the stochastic behavior of phenomena related to heat treatment (such as spalling). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Safety of Structural Composites)
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