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Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Advanced Materials Characterization".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 September 2021) | Viewed by 25431

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Prof. Dr. Wolfram Volk

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Chair of Metal Forming and Casting, TUM Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Munich, D-85748 Garching, Germany
Interests: influences on the wear behavior of cutting edges; assistance for sheet metal forming operations based on artificial intelligence; qualification of new approaches for cast process designs

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The foundry is currently changing. In view of the fact that environmental policies are becoming more severe, and with respect to the development of alternative engines, production is also on the move. One of the main challenges of modern foundries is the development of integral components and the design of efficient cast processes, which meet the demands of the industrial market. This also includes the extensive use of the potential of cast materials and the targeted, positive influence on their properties.

The combination of processes and materials forms the basis for forward-looking developments in the engineering of cast components and enables the production of high-precision components, which are competitively viable.

This Special Issue addresses advanced topics concerning the quality of cast parts, the efficiency of cast processes, and the characterization of cast materials. All characterization methods concerning castings and cast processes are welcome, as well as the analysis of different kinds of metals, for example, high entropy alloys.

It is my pleasure to invite you to submit your work to this Special Issue.

Prof. Dr. Wolfram Volk
Guest Editor

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Keywords

cast technologies
molding materials
compound casting
material modelling
material characterization
efficient manufacturing
cast alloys

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 3172 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Stoichiometry and Roughness of a Degraded A380 Alloy after Casting, Technical Cleaning and Packaging

by Darja Steiner Petrovič and Djordje Mandrino

Materials 2021, 14(21), 6458; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216458 - 28 Oct 2021

Viewed by 1302

Abstract

The surface stoichiometry of the degraded surface of a commercial Al–Si casting was investigated. The die-cast component was previously stored in a sealed plastic envelope. After that, surface stains in the form of white layers were observed. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to study these layers. For comparison, a seemingly unaffected area as well as a freshly cut surface of the casting were also analysed. In order to additionally assess the surface condition, surface roughnesses were measured. Based on the binding energies (BEs) of the Al and O in the XPS spectra, and the stoichiometric results, it was concluded that the surface layers of the degraded and undegraded samples consist mostly of aluminium oxide and aluminium hydroxide. Furthermore, sodium phosphate from the leftover detergent and silicon oxide were detected in both analysed areas. Analyses of the Al KLL Auger transition were used to corroborate this. The relative shares of Al oxide vs. hydroxide based on the elemental concentrations were determined. The chemical compositions and chemical states of the elements in the top layers were thus obtained. The combination of surface-sensitive analytical techniques was found to be a suitable tool for the ex-post identification of the source of defects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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10 pages, 6970 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Method for Characterising the Influence of Casting Parameters on the Metallurgical Bonding of Copper and Steel Bimetals

by Simon Kammerloher, Julika Hoyer, Philipp Lechner, Tim Mittler and Wolfram Volk

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6223; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206223 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1564

Abstract

Traditional casting technology offers two mayor drawbacks towards research activities. On the one hand, time and resources needed for every casting are rather high. The mould has to be able to withstand the high temperatures introduced by the melt and provide cooling for the cast part. Preparation and installation of measuring equipment therefore takes time. Additionally, due to the high mass of the mould when compared to the cast part, parameter variations are rather limited in their resulting effect on the temperature-time profile being one of the most prominent factors regarding cast quality. Especially when pouring by hand, variations in casting times and rates superimpose effects created intentionally. Therefore, a different process was advanced and evaluated, allowing to minimise some of the drawbacks mentioned before. The key idea is to drastically reduce casting size to the dimensions of one specimen and to apply a highly automated production route. As such, a mirror furnace was modified as to allow the processing of melt. Due to the specimens size, an adaption of mechanical testing equipment was performed and evaluated. As an example, copper-iron bimetal specimens were examined by light microscopy, micro hardness testing, nanoindentation as well as tensile and torsion testing. As the results were consistent, the newly introduced method can be applied successfully in casting research. This allows for highly reproducible results, reducing the uncertainty of temperature measurements of a specimen due to the distance between them. The possibility of separating influencing variables like maximum temperature and cooling rate allows an analysis of the casting process, which would require different moulds to do so in traditional casting methods. The next steps will be directed at a broader variety of metals processed and at a direct comparison between the new process route and traditional casting technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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17 pages, 5016 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Slurry-Cast Layer Compounds for 3D Printing of High Strength Casting Cores

by Patricia Erhard, Jan Angenoorth, Joachim Vogt, Johannes Spiegel, Florian Ettemeyer, Wolfram Volk and Daniel Günther

Materials 2021, 14(20), 6149; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14206149 - 16 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2120

Abstract

Additive manufacturing of casting cores and molds is state of the art in industrial application today. However, improving the properties of chemically bonded casting cores regarding temperature stability, bending strength, and surface quality is still a major challenge. The process of slurry-based 3D printing allows the fabrication of dense structures and therefore sinterable casting cores. This paper presents a study of the slurry-based fabrication of ceramic layer compounds focusing on the drying process and the achievable properties in slurry-based 3D printing of casting cores. This study aims at contributing to a better understanding of the interrelations between the drying conditions in the 3D printing process and the properties of sintered specimens relating thereto. The drying intensity influenced by an IR heater as well as the drying periods are varied for layer thicknesses of 50, 75, and 100 µm. Within this study, a process window applicable for 3D printing of sinterable casting cores is identified and further indications are given for optimization potentials. At layer heights of 75 µm, bending strengths between ~8 and 11 MPa as well as densities of around 50% of the theoretical density were achieved. Since the mean roughness depth Rz is determined to be <30 µm in plane, an application of slurry-based 3D printing in investment casting is conceivable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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14 pages, 5571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation and Thermodynamic Modeling of Influence of Nickel and Titanium Content on the Structure and Selected Properties of Tin Bronzes

by Janusz Kozana, Aldona Garbacz-Klempka, Marcin Piękoś, Małgorzata Perek-Nowak and Paweł Pałka

Materials 2021, 14(20), 5944; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14205944 - 10 Oct 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1393

Abstract

Investigations are conducted in order to maintain or to improve the selected properties of the group of foundry copper-tin alloys with nickel and titanium additions, at a limited fraction of the critical (deficit) element such as tin. The crystallisation process, as well as changes of the microstructure and selected mechanical properties of the CuSn8 alloy—occurring due to introducing alloying additions—were analysed. Investigations of the macro and microstructure were performed using optical and scanning electron microscopy. Based on the thermal analysis and thermodynamic modelling using the CALPHAD (CALculations of PHAse Diagrams) method, the crystallisation process was analysed. The identification of phases was performed by XRD (X-ray diffraction). In addition, such parameters as tensile strength-UTS, elongation-A and hardness-HBS were tested. Under the influence of the introduced titanium, the columnar crystals are reduced due to the crystallisation of the alloy at the walls of the mould. Precipitations (intermetallic phases) crystallize first (primary). The intermetallic phases associated with the presence of the alloying elements nickel and titanium are located in the interdendritic regions. In tin bronzes with titanium additions, hardness (HBS) increases, tensile strength (UTS) negligibly decreases, while elongation (A) significantly decreases. In the case of CuSnNi bronze, the addition of 0.2 wt.% Ti increases the hardness and increases ultimate tensile strength (UTS), while reducing the elongation (A). Higher Ti additions increase HBS, slightly decrease the tensile strength, and significantly reduce the elongation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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15 pages, 5102 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fluidity Investigation of Pure Al and Al-Si Alloys

by Toshio Haga, Shinjiro Imamura and Hiroshi Fuse

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5372; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185372 - 17 Sep 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2775

Abstract

Fluidity tests of pure aluminum 1070 and Al-Si alloys with Si contents of up to 25% were conducted using a die cast machine equipped with a spiral die. The effects of the channel gap, die temperature, and injection speed on the fluidity were investigated. When the channel gap was small (0.5 mm), the flow length of the 1070 was minimized, and the fluidity increased monotonically at a gradual rate with increasing Si content. In contrast, larger gaps yielded convex fluidity–Si content curves. Additionally, heating the die had less of an influence on the fluidity of the 1070 than on that of the Al-Si alloy. These results are discussed in the context of the peeling of the solidification layer from the die based on the thicknesses of foils and strips cast by melt spinning and roll casting, respectively. At lower Si contents, heat shrinkage was greater and the latent heat was lower. When the heat shrinkage was greater, the solidification layer began to peel earlier, and the heat transfer between the solidification layer and the die became smaller. As a result, the fluidity of the 1070 was greatest when the channel gap was 0.8 mm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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16 pages, 16748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Salt Support Structures on Material Jetted Aluminum Parts

by Benedikt Kirchebner, Maximilian Ploetz, Christoph Rehekampff, Philipp Lechner and Wolfram Volk

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4072; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154072 - 21 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1860

Abstract

Like most additive manufacturing processes for metals, material jetting processes require support structures in order to attain full 3D capability. The support structures have to be removed in subsequent operations, which increases costs and slows down the manufacturing process. One approach to this issue is the use of water-soluble support structures made from salts that allow a fast and economic support removal. In this paper, we analyze the influence of salt support structures on material jetted aluminum parts. The salt is applied in its molten state, and because molten salts are typically corrosive substances, it is important to investigate the interaction between support and build material. Other characteristic properties of salts are high melting temperatures and low thermal conductivity, which could potentially lead to remelting of already printed structures and might influence the microstructure of aluminum that is printed on top of the salt due to low cooling rates. Three different sample geometries have been examined using optical microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and micro-hardness testing. The results indicate that there is no distinct influence on the process with respect to remelting, micro-hardness and chemical reactions. However, a larger dendrite arm spacing is observed in aluminum that is printed on salt. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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18 pages, 3313 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Gating System Parameters of Die-Cast Molds on Properties of Al-Si Castings

by Štefan Gašpár, Tomáš Coranič, Ján Majerník, Jozef Husár, Lucia Knapčíková, Dominik Gojdan and Ján Paško

Materials 2021, 14(13), 3755; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14133755 - 5 Jul 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2649

Abstract

The resulting quality of castings indicates the correlation of the design of the mold inlet system and the setting of technological parameters of casting. In this study, the influence of design solutions of the inlet system in a pressure mold on the properties of Al-Si castings was analyzed by computer modelling and subsequently verified experimentally. In the process of computer simulation, the design solutions of the inlet system, the mode of filling the mold depending on the formation of the casting and the homogeneity of the casting represented by the formation of shrinkages were assessed. In the experimental part, homogeneity was monitored by X-ray analysis by evaluating the integrity of the casting and the presence of pores. Mechanical properties such as permanent deformation and surface hardness of castings were determined experimentally, depending on the height of the inlet notch. The height of the inlet notch has been shown to be a key factor, significantly influencing the properties of the die-cast parts and influencing the speed and filling mode of the mold cavity. At the same time, a significant correlation between porosity and mechanical properties of castings is demonstrated. With the increasing share of porosity, the values of permanent deformation of castings increased. It is shown that the surface hardness of castings does not depend on the integrity of the castings but on the degree of subcooling of the melt in contact with the mold and the formation of a fine-grained structure in the peripheral zones of the casting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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24 pages, 119159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Material Databases and Validation in Modelling the Structure of Castings Using the Cellular Automaton Method

by Jakub Hajkowski, Robert Sika, Michał Rogalewicz, Paweł Popielarski, Waldemar Matysiak and Stanislaw Legutko

Materials 2021, 14(11), 3055; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14113055 - 3 Jun 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1754

Abstract

The paper presents the scope of applicability and the usefulness of the method of predicting crystalline structure of castings using a commercially available system called Calcosoft CAFE. The influence of individual values of the parameters of the thermal model and the model predicting the structure (phenomenon of nucleation and crystal growth), and the method of interpretation of the results were identified. In simulation studies, it is important to use reliable and validated material database, under appropriate conditions. It is necessary to predict the properties of castings with a comprehensive, new and practical approach to modelling the formation of phase components of structure in terms of both macroscale and microscale phenomena (Multiscale and Multiphysics). Therefore, in this paper, the experimental-simulation validation of the CAFE code was undertaken. The tests were carried out on castings solidifying under various heat transfer conditions controlled by mould materials such as: a homogenous mould made of moulding sand, moulding sand with chill, and mould made of insulating mass with chill. These conditions directly influence the structure formation. The method of validation of the structure was determined in terms of its three parameters, i.e., the degree of refinement of the crystals, the location of the columnar-to-equiaxed transition zone—CET and the angle of the crystals. The above tests enabled to extend the content of databases, which often lack the necessary values of parameters used in modelling, e.g., crystallization of a specific alloy under given conditions (sand casting, chills or laser surface treatment). On this basis, the basics of correlating the simulation results on a micro- and macroscale were generalized, the limits of the application of individual parameters (mould, alloy materials) and their impact on the structure formation were determined. It resulted in the extension of the database for simulation calculations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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14 pages, 7142 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Automatic Determination of Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing in AlSi-Cast Microstructures

by Christian Gawert and Rüdiger Bähr

Materials 2021, 14(11), 2827; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14112827 - 25 May 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2362

Abstract

A new procedure for the automatic measurement of the secondary dendrite arm spacing (SDAS) from microscopic images is presented. The individual primary and secondary dendrite arms are identified through suitable segmentation techniques and clustered in such a way that dendritic structures are obtained suitable for SDAS measurement. The algorithms are applied to two different hypoeutectic aluminum cast alloys, and the quality of the measurements obtained is assessed through a comparison to manually measured SDAS values. A good agreement between the automated measurements and the distribution of manual measurements is found for both cast structures considered. In addition, a decrease in computation time is observed which allows for an increase in measurement density that is used to characterize the microstructures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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16 pages, 5503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research and Evaluation of the Influence of the Construction of the Gate and the Influence of the Piston Velocity on the Distribution of Gases into the Volume of the Casting

by Ján Majerník, Štefan Gašpár, Jozef Husár, Ján Paško and Jan Kolínský

Materials 2021, 14(9), 2264; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092264 - 27 Apr 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1554

Abstract

Distribution of gasses to the cast volume and volume of pores can be maintained within the acceptable limits by means of correct setting of technological parameters of casting and by selection of suitable structure and gating system arrangement. The main idea of this paper solves the issue of suitability of die casting adjustment—i.e., change of technological parameters or change of structural solution of the gating system—with regards to inner soundness of casts produced in die casting process. Parameters which were compared included height of a gate and velocity of a piston. The melt velocity in the gate was used as a correlating factor between the gate height and piston velocity. The evaluated parameter was gas entrapment in the cast at the end of the filling phase of die casting cycle and at the same time percentage of porosity in the samples taken from the main runner. On the basis of the performed experiments it was proved that the change of technological parameters, particularly of pressing velocity of the piston, directly influences distribution of gasses to the cast volume. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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9 pages, 2389 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructures and Macrosegregation of Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloy Billet Prepared by Uniform Direct Chill Casting

by Li Zhou, Yajun Luo, Zhenlin Zhang, Min He, Yinao Xu, Yulei Zhao, Sheng Liu, Lijun Dong and Zhifeng Zhang

Materials 2021, 14(4), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14040708 - 3 Feb 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2212

Abstract

In this study, large-sized Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloy billets were prepared by direct chill casting imposed with annular electromagnetic stirring and intercooling; a process named uniform direct chill casting. The effects of uniform direct chill casting on grain size and the alloying element distribution of the billets were investigated and compared with those of the normal direct chill casting method. The results show that the microstructures were refined and the homogeneity of the alloying elements distribution was greatly improved by imposing the annular electromagnetic stirring and intercooling. In uniform direct chill casting, explosive nucleation can be triggered, originating from the mold wall and dendrite fragments for grain refinement. The effects of electromagnetic stirring on macrosegregation are discussed with consideration of the centrifugal force that drives the movement of melt from the central part towards the upper-periphery part, which could suppress the macrosegregation of alloying elements. The refined grain can reduce the permeability of the melt in the mushy zone that can restrain macrosegregation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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19 pages, 2538 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Plane Stress Failure Criterion for Inorganically-Bound Core Materials

by Philipp Lechner, Christoph Hartmann, Florian Ettemeyer and Wolfram Volk

Materials 2021, 14(2), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14020247 - 6 Jan 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2094

Abstract

Inorganically-bound core materials are used in foundries in high quantities. However, there is no validated mechanical failure criterion, which allows performing finite-element calculations on the core geometries, yet. With finite-element simulations, the cores could be optimised for various production processes from robotic core handling to the decoring process after the casting. To identify a failure criterion, we propose testing methods, that enable us to investigate the fracture behaviour of inorganically-bound core materials. These novel testing methods induce multiple bi-axial stress states into the specimens and are developed for cohesive frictional materials in general and for sand cores in particular. This allows validating failure criteria in principal stress space. We found that a Mohr-Coulomb model describes the fracture of inorganic core materials in a plane stress state quite accurately and adapted it to a failure criterion, which combines the Mohr-Coulomb model with the Weakest-Link theory in one consistent mechanical material model. This novel material model has been successfully utilised to predict the fracture force of a Brazilian test. This prediction is based on the stress fields of a finite element method (FEM) calculation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization Methods for Metal Cast Processes)

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