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Optical MEMS: Design, Fabrication, Control, Modeling and Developments
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Optical MEMS: Design, Fabrication, Control, Modeling and Developments

A topical collection in Micromachines (ISSN 2072-666X). This collection belongs to the section "A1: Optical MEMS and Photonic Microsystems".

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Editors

Prof. Dr. Huikai Xie

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor
School of Information and Electronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Interests: MEMS; CMOS-MEMS sensors; micromirrors; microactuators; piezoelectric MEMS microspeakers; pMUTs; photoacoustic microscopy; optical endomicroscopy
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Frederic Zamkotsian

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor
Aix Marseille Universite, CNRS, CNES, LAM, Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Marseille, 38 Rue Frédéric Joliot Curie, 13388 Marseille CEDEX 13, France
Interests: MOEMS; micromirror arrays; MOEMS characterization; astronomical instrumentation; spectrographs; spectro-imagers; space optical instrumentation; universe observation; earth observation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Yoshihiro Taguchi

E-Mail Website
Collection Editor
Department of System Design Engineering, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Yokohama, Japan
Interests: micro/nano-scale thermal engineering; optical MEMS (microelectromechanical systems); micro-opto-fluidics; micro optical sensor

Topical Collection Information

Dear Colleagues,

Optical microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), also known as microoptoelectromechanical systems (MOEMS) or optical microsystems, are devices or systems that interact with light via actuation or sensing at a micron or millimeter scale. Optical MEMS have had enormous commercial success, being utilized in projectors, displays, and fiberoptic communications. The best-known example is Texas Instruments’ digital micromirror devices (DMDs).

The development of optical MEMS was seriously impeded by the Telecom Bubble in 2000. Fortunately, DMDs grew their market size even in that economic downturn. Meanwhile, in the last one-and-a-half decades, the optical MEMS market has been slowly but steadily recovering. During this time span, there has been a major technological the shift from thin-film polysilicon microstructures to single-crystal silicon microstructures. In particular, the last few years have seen cloud data centers demand large-port optical cross connects (OXCs), autonomous driving require miniature LiDAR, and virtual reality/augmented reality (VR/AR) have need for tiny optical scanners. This is a new wave of opportunities for optical MEMS.

Furthermore, several research institutes around the world have been developing MOEMS devices for extreme applications (very fine tailoring of light beam in terms of phase, intensity, or wavelength) and/or extreme environments (vacuum, cryogenic temperatures) for many years. Accordingly, this Topical Collection seeks to showcase research papers, short communications, and review articles that focus on (1) novel design, fabrication, control, and modeling of optical MEMS devices based on all kinds of actuation/sensing mechanisms; and (2) new developments related to the application of optical MEMS devices of any kind in consumer electronics, optical communications, industry, biology, medicine, agriculture, physics, astronomy, space, or defense.

Prof. Dr. Huikai Xie
Prof. Dr. Frederic Zamkotsian
Prof. Dr. Yoshihiro Taguchi
Collection Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the collection website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Micromachines is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2100 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • micromirrors
  • microlenses
  • tunable lenses
  • metalenses
  • microgratings
  • microbolometers
  • endomicroscopy
  • microspectrometers
  • beam steering
  • optical phased arrays
  • optical switches
  • VOA
  • micro-LiDAR
  • OXC
  • DMD
  • optical MEMS sensors

Published Papers (10 papers)

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2025

Jump to: 2024

9 pages, 6847 KiB  
Article
A Micromechanical Wide-Range Stiffness-Tuning Mechanism for MEMS Optical Switches
by Tongtian Zhang, Junhui Wu and Guangya Zhou
Micromachines 2025, 16(4), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16040397 - 28 Mar 2025
Viewed by 146
Abstract
MEMS stiffness-tunable devices, owing to their low resonant frequency and high sensitivity, have been widely adopted in fields such as biological force sensing, vibration sensing, and inertial sensing. However, traditional stress-effect-based stiffness-adjustment methods offer limited tuning range. This paper introduces a novel stiffness-tuning [...] Read more.
MEMS stiffness-tunable devices, owing to their low resonant frequency and high sensitivity, have been widely adopted in fields such as biological force sensing, vibration sensing, and inertial sensing. However, traditional stress-effect-based stiffness-adjustment methods offer limited tuning range. This paper introduces a novel stiffness-tuning mechanism based on the principle of stiffness compensation, integrating positive stiffness springs with V-shaped negative stiffness springs in a parallel configuration. A self-locking mechanism enables precise control of the mechanical preloading on the negative stiffness structures to realize stiffness adjustment. This design is prototyped by microscale fabrication techniques and is suitable for miniaturization. The experimental results confirm a stiffness reduction of over 90% and demonstrate bistability. These findings highlight the potential of the design for high-sensitivity MEMS accelerometers and dual-mode optical switches with low switching voltage. Full article
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25 pages, 42288 KiB  
Article
An Analysis of Arrays with Irregular Apertures in MEMS Smart Glasses for the Improvement of Clear View
by Roland Donatiello, Mustaqim Siddi Que Iskhandar, Md Kamrul Hasan, Philipp Kästner, Muhammad Hasnain Qasim, Jiahao Chen, Shilby Baby, Basma Elsaka, Guilin Xu and Hartmut Hillmer
Micromachines 2025, 16(2), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16020176 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 848
Abstract
An innovative glass substrate surface technology including integrated micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) is presented as an advanced light modulation, heat control, and energy management system. This smart technology is based on millions of metallic micromirrors per square meter fabricated on the glass surface, which [...] Read more.
An innovative glass substrate surface technology including integrated micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) is presented as an advanced light modulation, heat control, and energy management system. This smart technology is based on millions of metallic micromirrors per square meter fabricated on the glass surface, which are arranged in arrays and electrostatically actuated. The smart window application exploits an elaborate MEMS glass technology for active daylight steering and energy management in buildings, enabling energy saving, CO2 emission reduction, a positive health impact, and improved well-being. When light interacts with a glass substrate that has regular, repetitive patterning at the microscopic scale on its surface, these microstructures can cause the diffraction of the transmitted light, resulting in the potential deterioration of the view quality through the smart glass. A reduction in optical artifacts for improved clear view is presented by using irregular geometric micromirror apertures. Several non-periodic, irregular micromirror aperture designs are compared with corresponding periodic regular designs. For each considered aperture geometry, the irregular array reveals a reduction in optical artifacts and, therefore, by far a clearer view than the corresponding regular array. A systematic and comprehensive study was conducted through design, simulation, technological fabrication, experimental characterization, and analysis. Full article
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14 pages, 3519 KiB  
Article
Homogeneity of Electro-Mechanical and Optical Characteristics in Ring-Shaped MEMS Shutter Arrays with Subfield Addressing for Interference Microscopy
by Philipp Kästner, Basma Elsaka, Mustaqim Siddi Que Iskhandar, Steffen Liebermann, Roland Donatiello, Shujie Liu and Hartmut Hillmer
Micromachines 2025, 16(2), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16020168 - 30 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 654
Abstract
We present a MEMS array-based approach for micro-irises called “ring shutter”, utilizing subfield addressing for applications in advanced micro-optics, such as interference microscopy. This experimental study is focused on investigating the homogeneity of electro-mechanical and optical characteristics within and between subfields of a [...] Read more.
We present a MEMS array-based approach for micro-irises called “ring shutter”, utilizing subfield addressing for applications in advanced micro-optics, such as interference microscopy. This experimental study is focused on investigating the homogeneity of electro-mechanical and optical characteristics within and between subfields of a lab demonstrator device. The characterization aims to ensure crosstalk-free and swift optical performance, as demonstrated in a previous study. For this purpose, the transmission in the initial state, actuation voltages, and response dynamics are measured for each electrode and the entire device, and the results are thoroughly compared. The measurements are conducted by expanding an existing optical actuation setup via tailored 3D-printed apertures, to isolate selected rings and zones. Evaluation of measurement data confirms the stable and crosstalk-free operation of the ring shutter. Both angular and radial homogeneity are robust and follow the expectations in the experiment. While transmission, actuation voltage and closing time slightly rise (up to 25%) with increased radial position represented by five discrete ring sections, the characteristics for different angular zones remain nearly constant. Response times are measured below 40 µs, actuation voltages do not exceed 60 V, and the overall transmission of the ring shutter yields 53.6%. Full article
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16 pages, 4593 KiB  
Article
Capacitance–Voltage Studies on Electrostatically Actuated MEMS Micromirror Arrays
by Jiahao Chen, Xiaohui Yang, Mustaqim Siddi Que Iskhandar, Md. Kamrul Hasan, Shilby Baby, Muhammad Hasnain Qasim, Dennis Löber, Shujie Liu, Roland Donatiello, Steffen Liebermann, Guilin Xu and Hartmut Hillmer
Micromachines 2025, 16(2), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16020157 - 29 Jan 2025
Viewed by 698
Abstract
This article presents the electrostatic actuation performance of micromirror arrays for intelligent active daylight control and energy management in green buildings using a capacitive–voltage (C-V) measurement technique. In order to understand how geometric hinge parameters, initial opening angles, and materials affect the overall [...] Read more.
This article presents the electrostatic actuation performance of micromirror arrays for intelligent active daylight control and energy management in green buildings using a capacitive–voltage (C-V) measurement technique. In order to understand how geometric hinge parameters, initial opening angles, and materials affect the overall efficiency and functionality of the system, micromirror arrays have been analyzed using C-V measurements considering (i) full and broken hinge structures, (ii) 90° and 130° initial tilt angles (Φ), and (iii) different material layer combinations. The measurement results indicate that both an increase in the Young’s modulus of the applied materials and increasing the initial tilt angles increase the threshold voltages during the closing process of the micromirrors. Full article
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29 pages, 7662 KiB  
Review
Advancements in MEMS Micromirror and Microshutter Arrays for Light Transmission Through a Substrate
by Shilby Baby, Mustaqim Siddi Que Iskhandar, Md Kamrul Hasan, Steffen Liebermann, Jiahao Chen, Hasnain Qasim, Shujie Liu, Eslam Farrag, Dennis Löber, Naureen Ahmed, Guilin Xu and Hartmut Hillmer
Micromachines 2025, 16(1), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16010103 - 16 Jan 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 882
Abstract
This paper reviews and compares electrostatically actuated MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical system) arrays for light modulation and light steering in which transmission through the substrate is required. A comprehensive comparison of the technical achievements of micromirror arrays and microshutter arrays is provided. The main focus [...] Read more.
This paper reviews and compares electrostatically actuated MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical system) arrays for light modulation and light steering in which transmission through the substrate is required. A comprehensive comparison of the technical achievements of micromirror arrays and microshutter arrays is provided. The main focus of this paper is MEMS micromirror arrays for smart glass in building windows and façades. This technology utilizes millions of miniaturized and actuatable micromirrors on transparent substrates, enabling use with transmissive substrates such as smart windows for personalized daylight steering, energy saving, and heat management in buildings. For the first time, subfield-addressable MEMS micromirror arrays with an area of nearly 1 m2 are presented. The recent advancements in MEMS smart glass technology for daylight steering are discussed, focusing on aspects like the switching speed, scalability, transmission, lifetime study, and reliability of micromirror arrays. Finally, simulations demonstrating the potential yearly energy savings for investments in MEMS smart glazing are presented, including a comparison to traditional automated external blind systems in a model office room with definite user interactions throughout the year. Additionally, this platform technology with planarized MEMS elements can be used for laser safety goggles to shield pilots, tram, and bus drivers as well as security personal from laser threats, and is also presented in this paper. Full article
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2024

Jump to: 2025

16 pages, 9841 KiB  
Article
MEMS Smart Glass with Larger Angular Tuning Range and 2D Actuation
by Md Kamrul Hasan, Mustaqim Siddi Que Iskhandar, Steffen Liebermann, Shilby Baby, Jiahao Chen, Muhammad Hasnain Qasim, Dennis Löber, Roland Donatiello, Guilin Xu and Hartmut Hillmer
Micromachines 2025, 16(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16010056 - 31 Dec 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 832
Abstract
Millions of electrostatically actuatable micromirror arrays have been arranged in between windowpanes in inert gas environments, enabling active daylighting in buildings for illumination and climatization. MEMS smart windows can reduce energy consumption significantly. However, to allow personalized light steering for arbitrary user positions [...] Read more.
Millions of electrostatically actuatable micromirror arrays have been arranged in between windowpanes in inert gas environments, enabling active daylighting in buildings for illumination and climatization. MEMS smart windows can reduce energy consumption significantly. However, to allow personalized light steering for arbitrary user positions with high flexibility, two main limitations must be overcome: first, limited tuning angle spans by MEMS pull-in effects; and second, the lack of a second orthogonal tuning angle, which is highly required. Firstly, design improvements of electrostatically actuatable micromirror arrays are reported by utilizing tailored bottom electrode structures for enlarging the tilt angle (Φ). Considerably larger tuning ranges are presented, significantly improving daylight steering into buildings. Secondly, 2D actuation means free movement of micromirrors via two angles—tilt (Φ) and torsion angle (θ)—while applying two corresponding voltages between the metallic micromirrors and corresponding FTO (fluorine-doped tin oxide) counters bottom electrode pads. In addition, a solution for a notorious problem in MEMS actuation is presented. Micromirror design modifications are necessary to eliminate possible crack formation on metallic structure due to stress concentration during the free movement of 2D actuatable micromirror arrays. The concept, design of micromirror arrays and bottom electrodes, as well as technological fabrication and experimental results are presented and discussed. Full article
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11 pages, 9716 KiB  
Article
Scanning Micromirror Calibration Method Based on PSO-LSSVM Algorithm Prediction
by Yan Liu, Xiang Cheng, Tingting Zhang, Yu Xu, Weijia Cai and Fengtian Han
Micromachines 2024, 15(12), 1413; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15121413 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 2780
Abstract
Scanning micromirrors represent a crucial component in micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS), with a broad range of applications across diverse fields. However, in practical applications, several factors inherent to the fabrication process and the surrounding usage environment exert a considerable influence on the accuracy of [...] Read more.
Scanning micromirrors represent a crucial component in micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS), with a broad range of applications across diverse fields. However, in practical applications, several factors inherent to the fabrication process and the surrounding usage environment exert a considerable influence on the accuracy of measurements obtained with the micromirror. Therefore, it is essential to calibrate the scanning micromirror and its measurement system. This paper presents a novel scanning micromirror calibration method based on the prediction of a particle swarm optimization-least squares support vector machine (PSO-LSSVM). The objective is to establish a correspondence between the actual deflection angle of the micromirror and the output of the measurement system employing a regression algorithm, thereby enabling the prediction of the tilt angle of the micromirror. The decision factor (R2) for this model at the x-axis reaches a value of 0.9947. Full article
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33 pages, 22149 KiB  
Review
MEMS Micromirror Actuation Techniques: A Comprehensive Review of Trends, Innovations, and Future Prospects
by Mansoor Ahmad, Mohamed Bahri and Mohamad Sawan
Micromachines 2024, 15(10), 1233; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15101233 - 30 Sep 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2860
Abstract
Micromirrors have recently emerged as an essential component in optical scanning technology, attracting considerable attention from researchers. Their compact size and versatile capabilities, such as light steering, modulation, and switching, are leading them as potential alternatives to traditional bulky galvanometer scanners. The actuation [...] Read more.
Micromirrors have recently emerged as an essential component in optical scanning technology, attracting considerable attention from researchers. Their compact size and versatile capabilities, such as light steering, modulation, and switching, are leading them as potential alternatives to traditional bulky galvanometer scanners. The actuation of these mirrors is critical in determining their performance, as it contributes to factors such as response time, scanning angle, and power consumption. This article aims to provide a thorough exploration of the actuation techniques used to drive micromirrors, describing the fundamental operating principles. The four primary actuation modalities—electrostatic, electrothermal, electromagnetic, and piezoelectric—are thoroughly investigated. Each type of actuator’s operational principles, key advantages, and their limitations are discussed. Additionally, the discussion extends to hybrid micromirror designs that combine two types of actuation in a single device. A total of 208 closely related papers indexed in Web of Science were reviewed. The findings indicate ongoing advancements in the field, particularly in terms of size, controllability, and field of view, making micromirrors ideal candidates for applications in medical imaging, display projections, and optical communication. With a comprehensive overview of micromirror actuation strategies, this manuscript serves as a compelling resource for researchers and engineers aiming to utilize the appropriate type of micromirror in the field of optical scanning technology. Full article
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12 pages, 1132 KiB  
Article
Control of a Micro-Electro-Mechanical System Fast Steering Mirror with an Input Shaping Algorithm
by Jiapeng Hou, Haoxiang Li, Lei Qian, Huijun Yu and Wenjiang Shen
Micromachines 2024, 15(10), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15101215 - 29 Sep 2024
Viewed by 4182
Abstract
Fast steering mirrors (FSMs) designed by the micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) technology are significantly smaller in volume and mass, offering distinct advantages. To improve their performance in the open-loop control mode, this study introduces a control algorithm and evaluates its performance on an electromagnetic-driven [...] Read more.
Fast steering mirrors (FSMs) designed by the micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) technology are significantly smaller in volume and mass, offering distinct advantages. To improve their performance in the open-loop control mode, this study introduces a control algorithm and evaluates its performance on an electromagnetic-driven MEMS-FSM. The algorithm employs a method to shape the input signal by fitting the system’s transfer function and modifying the step response. This shaped signal is then applied to the system to minimize overshoot, reduce settling time, and improve working bandwidth, thereby enabling faster angular adjustments and improving the stability of the FSM. The experimental results demonstrate an 85.65% reduction in overshoot and a decrease in settling time from 84 ms to 0.4 ms. Consequently, the working bandwidth of the FSM system increases to 2500 Hz, demonstrating the effectiveness of the algorithm in enhancing MEMS-FSM’s performance. Full article
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11 pages, 7519 KiB  
Article
A Large-Scan-Range Electrothermal Micromirror Integrated with Thermal Convection-Based Position Sensors
by Anrun Ren, Yingtao Ding, Hengzhang Yang, Teng Pan, Ziyue Zhang and Huikai Xie
Micromachines 2024, 15(8), 1017; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15081017 - 8 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3608
Abstract
This paper presents the design, simulation, fabrication, and characterization of a novel large-scan-range electrothermal micromirror integrated with a pair of position sensors. Note that the micromirror and the sensors can be manufactured within a single MEMS process flow. Thanks to the precise control [...] Read more.
This paper presents the design, simulation, fabrication, and characterization of a novel large-scan-range electrothermal micromirror integrated with a pair of position sensors. Note that the micromirror and the sensors can be manufactured within a single MEMS process flow. Thanks to the precise control of the fabrication of the grid-based large-size Al/SiO2 bimorph actuators, the maximum piston displacement and optical scan angle of the micromirror reach 370 μm and 36° at only 6 Vdc, respectively. Furthermore, the working principle of the sensors is deeply investigated, where the motion of the micromirror is reflected by monitoring the temperature variation-induced resistance change of the thermistors on the substrate during the synchronous movement of the mirror plate and the heaters. The results show that the full-range motion of the micromirror can be recognized by the sensors with sensitivities of 0.3 mV/μm in the piston displacement sensing and 2.1 mV/° in the tip-tilt sensing, respectively. The demonstrated large-scan-range micromirror that can be monitored by position sensors has a promising prospect for the MEMS Fourier transform spectrometers (FTS) systems. Full article
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