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Minerals
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Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials
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Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials

A special issue of Minerals (ISSN 2075-163X). This special issue belongs to the section "Clays and Engineered Mineral Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (19 March 2021) | Viewed by 25035

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Mehdi Mirzababaei

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
Interests: soil reinforcement; soil stabilisation; pavement design; use of waste materials in pavement; thermal behaviour of stabilised clays; railway geotechnology; remote sensing and geotechnical field instrumentation; design and develoment of closed-loop research equipment
Dr. Mostafa Mohamed

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering and Informatics, University of Bradford, Bradford, West Yorkshire BD7 1DP, UK
Interests: soil reinforcement; soil stabilisation; thermal recovery from soilsl soil-buried structures interaction; conslidation of soft soils
Dr. An Deng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Civil, Environmental and Mining Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
Interests: soil reinforcement; soil stabilisation; beneficial reuse of water materials

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Problematic soils including soft soils and expansive clays, which outcrop at construction sites of infrastructures such as road and railway embankments, pose serious unforeseen risks to overlying structures. Such soils possess low strength and due to seasonal changes and may lead to excessive settlement and heave. Displacing problematic soils from construction sites is costly and time-consuming. To eliminate the failure risks and to minimise infrastructure maintenance, a set of soil improvement practices is prominent prior to the commencement of foundation construction.

Over decades, soil improvement techniques have been introduced and practised in the field. The techniques include soil reinforcement with geofabrics, strips and discrete fibres, and stabilisation with traditional and non-traditional additives. Traditionally, lime, cement and fly ash are used frequently for soil stabilisation. The benefit of traditional soil stabilisers is counteracted by the huge environmental pollution and energy consumption for their production. It has been estimated that one tonne of Portland cement production causes 900-1100 kg carbon dioxide emission. Therefore, research is pivoted to enable environmentally friendly additives such as biopolymers and waste materials, and to reduce the use of quarried natural resources.

This Special Issue aims to bring together original and innovative studies on reinforcement and stabilisation of problematic soils with environmentally friendly materials. The sustainable and effective use of waste materials including waste glass and waste plastic, soil reinforcement techniques with natural and waste materials, and soil stabilisation with non-traditional additives, will be considered in this issue.

Dr. Mehdi Mirzababaei
Dr. Mostafa Mohamed
Dr. An Deng
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Minerals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • expansive clay
  • soft soil
  • soil reinforcement
  • stabilisation
  • non-traditional soil additive
  • waste material
  • sustainability
  • base
  • subbase

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 3766 KiB  
Article
Effect of Nano-Additives on the Strength and Durability Characteristics of Marl
by Mehdi Mirzababaei, Jafar Karimiazar, Ebrahim Sharifi Teshnizi, Reza Arjmandzadeh and Sayed Hessam Bahmani
Minerals 2021, 11(10), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11101119 - 12 Oct 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3030
Abstract
Low bearing capacity soils may pose serious construction concerns such as reduced bearing capacity and excessive hydro-associated volume changes. Proper soil remediation techniques must be planned and implemented before commencing any construction on low bearing capacity soils. Environmentally friendly soil stabilizers are gradually [...] Read more.
Low bearing capacity soils may pose serious construction concerns such as reduced bearing capacity and excessive hydro-associated volume changes. Proper soil remediation techniques must be planned and implemented before commencing any construction on low bearing capacity soils. Environmentally friendly soil stabilizers are gradually replacing traditional soil stabilizers with high carbon dioxide emissions such as lime and cement. This study investigated the use of an alternative pozzolanic mix of nano-additives (i.e., nano-silica and nano-alumina) and cement to reduce the usage of cement for achieving competent soil stabilization outcomes. A series of unconfined compressive strength (UCS), direct shear, and durability tests were conducted on marl specimens cured for 1, 7, and 28 days stabilized with nano-additives (0.1~1.5%), 3% cement, and combined 3% cement and nano-additives. The UCS and shear strength of stabilized marl increased with nano-additives up to a threshold nano-additive content of 1% which was further intensified with curing time. Nano-additive treated cemented marl specimens showed long durability under the water, while the cemented marl decomposed early. The microfabric inspection of stabilized marl specimens showed significant growth of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) products within the micro fabric of nano-silica treated marl with reduced pore-spaces within aggregated particles. The results confirmed that nano-additives can replace cement partially to achieve multi-fold improvement in the strength characteristics of the marl. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials)
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22 pages, 3809 KiB  
Article
Strength Characteristics of Clay–Rubber Waste Mixtures in Low-Frequency Cyclic Triaxial Tests
by Małgorzata Jastrzębska and Krzysztof Tokarz
Minerals 2021, 11(3), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030315 - 18 Mar 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3575
Abstract
This paper presents the results of consolidated and undrained (CU) triaxial cyclic tests related to the influence of tire waste addition on the strength characteristics of two different soils from Southern Poland: unswelling kaolin and swelling red clay. The test procedure included the [...] Read more.
This paper presents the results of consolidated and undrained (CU) triaxial cyclic tests related to the influence of tire waste addition on the strength characteristics of two different soils from Southern Poland: unswelling kaolin and swelling red clay. The test procedure included the normally consolidated remolded specimens prepared from pure red clay (RC) and kaolin (K) and their mixtures with two different fractions of shredded rubber powder (P) and granulate (G) in 5%, 10%, and 25% mass proportions. All samples were subjected to low-frequency cyclic loading carried out with a constant stress amplitude. Analysis of the results includes consideration of the effect of rubber additive and number of load cycles on the development of excess pore pressure and axial strain during the cyclic load operation and on the maximum stress deviator value. A general decrease in the shear strength due to the cyclic load operation was observed, and various effects of shear strength depended on the mixture content and size of the rubber waste particles. In general, the use of soil–rubber mixtures, especially for expansive soils and powder, should be treated with caution for cyclic loading. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials)
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20 pages, 2221 KiB  
Article
Improved Geotechnical Behavior of an Expansive Soil Amended with Tire-Derived Aggregates Having Different Gradations
by Amin Soltani, Abbas Taheri, An Deng and Brendan C. O’Kelly
Minerals 2020, 10(10), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10100923 - 19 Oct 2020
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 4511
Abstract
This experimental laboratory study examines the potential use of tire-derived aggregate (TDA) products as an additive to alleviate the inferior geotechnical properties of a subgrade deposit of clay soil with high expansivity. A total of ten mix designs—the unamended soil and nine soil–TDA [...] Read more.
This experimental laboratory study examines the potential use of tire-derived aggregate (TDA) products as an additive to alleviate the inferior geotechnical properties of a subgrade deposit of clay soil with high expansivity. A total of ten mix designs—the unamended soil and nine soil–TDA blends prepared at 5%, 10% and 20% TDA contents (by dry mass) using three different TDA gradations/sizes—were examined. The experiments included standard Proctor compaction, oedometer swell and unconfined compression tests. The TDA materials’ lower specific gravity, hydrophobic character and higher energy absorption capacity compared with the soil solids led to notable reductions in the soil compaction characteristics. The amendment of the soil with TDA resulted in notable decreases in the rate and magnitude of swelling—the observed reductions were in favor of higher TDA contents, with larger TDA particle size being a secondary factor. Further, for any given TDA size, the variations of strength and toughness with respect to TDA content exhibited rise–fall relationships, peaking at 5% TDA and then decreasing for higher TDA contents. The stiffness and ductility parameters, however, were found to monotonically decrease and increase with the TDA content, respectively. Finally, TDA contents of up to 10%, with gradations equivalent to those of medium and coarse sands, were found to reduce the soil’s swelling potential from high to moderate expansivity, while simultaneously improving its strength-related features, and thus can be deemed as optimum mix design choices from a geotechnical perspective. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials)
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13 pages, 2789 KiB  
Article
Compaction Characteristics of Kaolin Reinforced with Raw and Rubberized Oil Palm Shell
by Shi Jun Loi, Subhashini Anandan, Yi Sheng Tan and Mavinakere Eshwaraiah Raghunandan
Minerals 2020, 10(10), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10100863 - 30 Sep 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2034
Abstract
This paper presents an attempt to evaluate the suitability of oil palm shell (OPS) and rubberized OPS (ROPS), an alternative bio-material, as reinforcement in kaolin. OPS was surface coated with rubber, and its water absorption potential was studied in 5 media involving water [...] Read more.
This paper presents an attempt to evaluate the suitability of oil palm shell (OPS) and rubberized OPS (ROPS), an alternative bio-material, as reinforcement in kaolin. OPS was surface coated with rubber, and its water absorption potential was studied in 5 media involving water and kaolin samples (with different water contents). The water absorption data measured in the laboratory was used as an indirect measure to verify the degradability of ROPS samples when used as reinforcements in kaolin. The surface treatment of OPS with rubber was found to perform well, with around a fivefold decrease in water absorption, thus making it an ideal treatment procedure to this end. Kaolin-ROPS mixtures with different OPS and ROPS proportions (0, 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% by weight) were prepared in laboratory to evaluate their compaction behaviors. Both standard proctor compaction and mini-compaction procedures were adopted in this study to ensure applicability of the findings across a wide range of compaction methods adopted in the laboratory. Compaction curves obtained for both kaolin-OPS and kaolin-ROPS mixes showed a decreasing trend in the maximum dry density values with increasing proportions of OPS and ROPS. Optimum water content of kaolin-OPS mixtures did not show a significant variation, while kaolin-ROPS mixture showed a downward trend with increasing ROPS contents, thereby signifying improvement in the compaction characteristics after OPS reinforcement in kaolin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials)
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23 pages, 7927 KiB  
Article
Strength, Stiffness, and Microstructure of Wood-Ash Stabilized Marine Clay
by Abdullah Ekinci, Mohammad Hanafi and Ertug Aydin
Minerals 2020, 10(9), 796; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10090796 - 9 Sep 2020
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4139
Abstract
The world’s population is growing at a rapid pace, thus increasing the need for shelter, which, because of increased carbon emissions, is making our planet less habitable. Thus, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are used to reduce the embodied carbon emissions in the building [...] Read more.
The world’s population is growing at a rapid pace, thus increasing the need for shelter, which, because of increased carbon emissions, is making our planet less habitable. Thus, supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are used to reduce the embodied carbon emissions in the building sector. Wood-ash, as a replacement for cement in ground improvement, seems to be a promising material. In this study, we considered the strength, stiffness, and microstructural behavior of marine deposited clays of Cyprus treated with cement and wood-ash as a cement replacement. Since clay is abundant in nature, it could help stabilize waste to improve the mechanical behavior of produced composites. Portland cement (7%, 10%, and 13%) was replaced with various amount of wood-ash (5% and 10%) with two different dry densities (1400 and 1600 kg/m3) and three distinct curing periods (7, 28, and 60 days). Unconfined compressive strength (UCS), direct shear, porosity and pulse velocity tests were performed. Additionally, X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis (EDX) were performed for microstructural evaluation of clay–wood-ash–cement mixtures. The results revealed that the replacement of cement with 5% of wood-ash yielded superior performance. The microstructure investigation of wood-ash–cement–clay blends further showed the formation of a densified matrix with stable bonds. Furthermore, the porosity and strength properties (unconfined compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, cohesion (C) and friction angle (ϕ)) of blends have unique relationships with porosity and binder contents, which were further confirmed by other supplementary materials and soils. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials)
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Review

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22 pages, 5582 KiB  
Review
Sustainable Soil Bearing Capacity Improvement Using Natural Limited Life Geotextile Reinforcement—A Review
by Mohammad Gharehzadeh Shirazi, Ahmad Safuan Bin A. Rashid, Ramli Bin Nazir, Azrin Hani Binti Abdul Rashid, Hossein Moayedi, Suksun Horpibulsuk and Wisanukhorn Samingthong
Minerals 2020, 10(5), 479; https://doi.org/10.3390/min10050479 - 24 May 2020
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6717
Abstract
Geotextiles are commercially made from synthetic fibres and have been used to enhance bearing capacity and to reduce the settlement of weak soil foundations. Several efforts have been made to investigate the possibility of using bio-based geotextiles for addressing environmental issues. This paper [...] Read more.
Geotextiles are commercially made from synthetic fibres and have been used to enhance bearing capacity and to reduce the settlement of weak soil foundations. Several efforts have been made to investigate the possibility of using bio-based geotextiles for addressing environmental issues. This paper attempts to review previous studies on the bearing capacity improvement of soils reinforced with bio-based geotextiles under a vertical static load. The bearing capacity of the unreinforced foundation was used as a reference to illustrate the role of bio-based geotextiles in bearing capacity improvement. The effects of first geotextile depth to footing width ratio (d/B), geotextile spacing to footing width ratio (S/B), geotextile length to footing width ratio (L/B) and the number of reinforcement layers (N) on the bearing capacity were reviewed and presented in this paper. The optimum d/B ratio, which resulted in the maximum ultimate bearing capacity, was found to be in the range of 0.25–0.4. The optimum S/B ratio was in the range of 0.12–0.5. The most suitable L/B ratio, which resulted in better soil performance against vertical pressure, was about 3. Besides, the optimum number of layers providing the maximum bearing capacity was about three This article is useful as a guideline for a practical design and future research on the application of the natural geotextiles to improve the short-term bearing capacity of weak soil foundations in various sustainable geotechnical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Stabilisation and Reinforcement of Clays with Environmentally Friendly Materials)
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