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Research and Application of Food By-Products

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 March 2023) | Viewed by 33586

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Renata Różyło

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Guest Editor

Department of Food Engineering and Machines, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Interests: food processing; natural products; application of food byproducts; cereal processing; baking technology; natural colorant; freeze-drying
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Monika Szymańska-Chargot

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Guest Editor

Department of Microstructure and Mechanics of Biomaterials, Institute of Agrophysics PAS, Lublin, Poland
Interests: FTIR spectroscopy; Raman spectroscopy; Raman microscopy; chemometrics; structure of polysaccharides; fruit and vegetable wastes application; package materials; cellulose; nanocellulose; plant cell wall

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The aim of this Special Issue of Molecules entitled “Research and Application of Food By-Products” is to present research on the application of analytical chemistry, biochemistry, molecular analysis, physical analysis, and microstructure observation in the study of food byproducts. Additionally, methods of processing raw materials and optimization of the food production process with food byproducts can be presented. Therefore, in this Special Issue, I encourage you to provide the latest scientific news, insights, and advances in the field analysis and processing of food byproducts.

Research on food byproducts and their use in food production is the latest research trend and may also have a positive impact on waste management. Waste raw materials are rich in fiber, protein, minerals, and other nutrients. Moreover, such products made with their participation may be characterized by high antioxidant activity.

This Special Issue aims to publish studies on the latest scientific news, insights, and advances in the field of food byproduct analysis and processing. Research on the quality, molecular characterization, chemical composition, phytochemicals, polyphenolic compounds, bioactive compounds, and anti-nutritional substances found in food byproducts can be submitted.

In this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following: the use of analytical chemistry, molecular analysis, physical analysis, and microstructure observation of food byproducts. In addition, the way of processing raw materials and the optimization of the production process of food products with waste additives are welcome. We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Renata Różyło
Dr. Monika Szymańska-Chargot
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Molecules is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

food byproducts
waste material
food processing
chemical analysis
molecular analysis
bioactive compounds
anti-nutritional substances
physical properties
functional food

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 209 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: Research and Application of Food By-Products

by Renata Różyło

Molecules 2023, 28(11), 4557; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28114557 - 5 Jun 2023

Viewed by 881

Abstract

Recently, there has been an increase in interest in reusing food processing by-products [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

Research

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21 pages, 2362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Process Optimization of Phytoantioxidant and Photoprotective Compounds from Carob Pods (Ceratonia siliqua L.) Using Ultrasonic Assisted Extraction Method

by Radia Ayad, Rima Ayad, Hayat Bourekoua, Mostefa Lefahal, El Hani Makhloufi, Salah Akkal, Kamel Medjroubi and Gema Nieto

Molecules 2022, 27(24), 8802; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27248802 - 12 Dec 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2027

Abstract

The current study first describes the extraction of phytoantioxidant polyphenols from Carob byproducts (pods) using maceration and heating-assisted extraction as traditional methods and ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) as an innovative method to determine the most efficient extraction process in terms of four targeted responses: total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activities (TAC and DPPH), and photoprotective properties as measured by the sun protection factor (SPF). Second, we used response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite rotatable design (CCDR) approach to investigate the influence of process variables (extraction time, extraction temperature, and solvent concentration) on UAE, which was found to be the most effective extraction technique in our study. Carob byproduct extracts had a TPC ranging from 6.21 to 21.92 mg GAE/g dw, a TAC ranging from 22.00 to 49.30 mg AAE/g dw, DPPH scavenging activity ranging from 56.35 to 90.50%, and SPF values ranging from 8.62 to 22.37. The optimal UAE conditions for maximum TPC, TAC, DPPH, and SPF responses were determined to be 38.90% ethanol, 53.90 °C, and 50.92 min. Using Carob as a source for sustainable and bioactive products in conjunction with optimized UAE is a promising contribution to the cosmetic industry that will help to strengthen the concept of environmentally-friendly “green chemistry”. Given that Carob pulp or seeds are considered food byproducts, the research presented here encourages the use of these agri-food waste materials in cosmetics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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16 pages, 1027 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quality Characteristics of Novel Pasta Enriched with Non-Extruded and Extruded Blackcurrant Pomace

by Dorota Gałkowska, Teresa Witczak and Karolina Pycia

Molecules 2022, 27(23), 8616; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238616 - 6 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1598

Abstract

Fruit pomace is a valuable by-product in terms of its chemical composition, which potential might be used through transformation of the pomace into food ingredients. The aim of this work was to assess the effect of partial (5% and 10%) substitution of powdered non-extruded or extruded blackcurrant pomace for semolina in pasta formula on nutritional and technological properties of the final product. The pasta was assessed for chemical composition, DPPH antiradical activity, color, cooking and textural properties. Presence of the by-products in the pasta resulted in increased total dietary fiber content (from 1.89 ± 0.06 up to 10.03 ± 0.15 g/100 g, dwb), fat content (from 1.29 ± 0.01 up to 2.70 ± 0.05 g/100 g, dwb) and DPPH antiradical activity (from 253 ± 15 up to 1037 ± 7 µmol TE/g, dwb), as well as in significantly different color (p < 0.05) as compared to the semolina-only pasta. The optimal cooking time was shortened by 1.0–1.5 min and by 2.0 min in the case of the lower and higher, respectively, level of pasta supplementation. The water absorption decreased by up to 32% in the enriched pasta. In general, the cooking loss remained unchanged. The uncooked product containing the extruded fruit pomace was characterized by significantly higher breaking strength (p < 0.05) as compared to the standard pasta. Presence of the pomace also affected texture of the cooked pasta, increasing its firmness and hardness and, when using the non-extruded pomace, the tensile strength. In our research, we have shown that durum wheat pasta enriched with 5 or 10% of powdered blackcurrant pomace or their extrudates constitute a food product of improved nutritional value and of appropriate textural characteristics, while maintaining culinary properties that meet pasta industry requirements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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11 pages, 1322 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Wet and Dry Micronization on the GC-MS Identification of the Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Properties of Freeze-Dried Spinach Leaves and Stems

by Renata Różyło, Jolanta Piekut, Dariusz Dziki, Marzena Smolewska, Sławomir Gawłowski, Agnieszka Wójtowicz and Urszula Gawlik-Dziki

Molecules 2022, 27(23), 8174; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238174 - 24 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1599

Abstract

Micronization is an emerging technology used in food production, in which the size of particles is reduced to microns in the processing of plant raw materials and by-products, thus making it an interesting research topic. Spinach stems are by-products of spinach leaf processing, but there is little information regarding their processing and possible reuse. In this study, wet and dry ball mill micronization, in combination with freeze drying, was used to process spinach stems and leaves to obtain functional powders. The color and particle size of the micronized spinach leaf and stem powders were evaluated. The antioxidant activity (AA) of the powders and phenolic compounds present in them were determined using GC-MS analysis. The results obtained showed that the dry micronization of leaves and stems resulted in smoother and brighter powders than wet micronization. Significantly smaller particle sizes were achieved using the dry micronization of the leaves and stems (Dv50 = 19.5 and 10.1 µm, respectively) rather than wet micronization (Dv50 = 84.6 and 112.5 µm, respectively). More phenolic compounds, such as o-coumaric acid and gallic acid, were extracted from the dry-micronized powders. The dry micronization of the stems significantly increased the total phenolic content, and the AA of these powders was also increased. These findings demonstrate that spinach leaves and stems subjected to dry micronization can be valuable functional components of food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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12 pages, 1488 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical Characteristics of Biochar from Waste Cricket Chitin (Acheta domesticus)

by Krzysztof Różyło, Katarzyna Jędruchniewicz, Patrycja Krasucka, Wojciech Biszczak and Patryk Oleszczuk

Molecules 2022, 27(22), 8071; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27228071 - 21 Nov 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1808

Abstract

The properties of biochar (BC) from crustacean chitin are relatively well understood, while there are few studies on BC from insect chitin. This study presents the characterization and phytotoxic assessment of BC produced from crickets and cricket chitin. Cricket powder (BCCR) and cricket chitin (BCCH) were pyrolyzed at 500 °C and 700 °C. Physicochemical characteristics, N ad-/desorption, FTIR, were examined. SEM images were also performed. Regardless of the pyrolysis temperature, biochars were characterized by a densely “packed” solid surface/monolithic type with a non-porous structure (0.05–0.22 m²/g) and high content of N (9.4–11.8%). BCCHs showed a higher pH (12.2–12.4) compared to BCCR (8.7–10.8). Based on the XRD analysis, BCs were characterized by an amorphous carbon turbostratic structure and a randomly oriented graphitic-like micro-crystallite structure. FTIR spectra of BCs confirmed the presence of various O₂ and N-functional groups on the BC surface. BCCHs added to soil at rates from 0.5 to 1.5% significantly reduced the germination of Lepidium sativum. Stimulation of root elongation was also observed in the case of BCCR500 1.0% and BCCR700 1.5%. Thermal degradation of cricket powder and cricket chitin promotes the formation of organic N-containing heterocyclic rings, which lead to the production of N-doped carbons with potential uses in energy storage and the contaminations sorption. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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12 pages, 717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Baobab-Fruit Shell and Fibrous Filaments Are Sources of Antioxidant Dietary Fibers

by Manuela Flavia Chiacchio, Silvia Tagliamonte, Attilio Visconti, Rosalia Ferracane, Arwa Mustafa and Paola Vitaglione

Molecules 2022, 27(17), 5563; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175563 - 29 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4943

Abstract

Since 2008, baobab-fruit dried pulp is listed as an ingredient on the European Union′s Novel Food Catalogue. By pulp production, 80% of the baobab fruit is discarded, forming side streams, namely, shell, fibrous filaments, and seeds. This study explored pulp and side-stream functional properties, including total dietary fiber (TDF), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), polyphenols, and water- (WHC) and oil-holding capacities (OHC), along with endocannabinoids (ECs) and N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) in pulp, seeds, and seed oil. Shell excelled in TDF (85%), followed by fibrous filaments (79%), and showed the highest soluble and direct TAC (72 ± 0.7 and 525 ± 1.0 µmol eq. Trolox/g, respectively). Pulp was the richest in polyphenols, followed by shell, fibrous filaments, and seeds. Quercetin predominated in shell (438.7 ± 2.5 µg/g); whereas epicatechin predominated in pulp (514 ± 5.7 µg/g), fibrous filaments (197.2 ± 0.1 µg/g), and seeds (120.1 ± 0.6 µg/g); followed by procyanidin B2 that accounted for 26–40% of total polyphenols in all the products. WHC and OHC ranged between 2–7 g H₂O-Oil/g, with fibrous filaments showing the highest values. ECs were not found, whereas NAEs were abundant in seed oil (2408.7 ± 11.1 ng/g). Baobab shell and fibrous filaments are sources of polyphenols and antioxidant dietary fibers, which support their use as functional food ingredients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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12 pages, 1101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Buckwheat Hull-Enriched Pasta: Physicochemical and Sensory Properties

by Katarzyna Sujka, Grażyna Cacak-Pietrzak, Alicja Sułek, Karolina Murgrabia and Dariusz Dziki

Molecules 2022, 27(13), 4065; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134065 - 24 Jun 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 1855

Abstract

This work aimed to evaluate the effect of partial replacement of semolina with 0, 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20% of ground buckwheat hull (BH) on the chemical composition, antioxidant properties, color, cooking characteristics, and sensory properties of wheat pasta. Pasta samples were prepared by dough lamination (tagliatelle shape) and dried at 55 °C until the moisture content was 11–12% (wet basis). Analyses of samples showed that the addition of BH caused an increase in fiber content in pasta from 4.31% (control pasta) to 14.15% (pasta with 20% of BH). Moreover, the brightness and yellowness of BH-enriched products were significantly decreased compared to the control sample, and the total color difference ranged from 23.84 (pasta with 1% of BH) to 32.56 (pasta with 15% BH). In addition, a decrease in optimal cooking time, as well as an increased weight index and cooking loss, was observed in BH-enriched pasta samples. Furthermore, BH-enriched cooked pasta had significantly higher total phenolic content and antioxidant activity but an unpleasant smell and taste, especially if the level of BH was higher than 10%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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12 pages, 1124 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microencapsulated Red Powders from Cornflower Extract—Spectral (FT-IR and FT-Raman) and Antioxidant Characteristics

by Renata Różyło, Monika Szymańska-Chargot, Artur Zdunek, Urszula Gawlik-Dziki and Dariusz Dziki

Molecules 2022, 27(10), 3094; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27103094 - 11 May 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1893

Abstract

Although the health benefits of cornflower extracts are known, their application in food production has not been widely investigated. This study assessed microencapsulated red powders (RP) prepared from the aqueous extract of blue cornflower petals. Microencapsulation was performed by freeze-drying using various stabilizers, such as maltodextrin, guar gum, and lecithin. The microencapsulated RP were characterized by spectral (FT-IR and FT-Raman), mineral, structural, and antioxidant analyses. The FT-IR and FT-Raman band related to guar gum, lecithin, and maltodextrin dominated over the band characteristic of anthocyanins present in the cornflower petal powders. The main difference observed in the FT-Raman spectra was attributed to a shift of bands which is reflection of appearance of flavium cation forms of anthocyanins. The microencapsulated RP had total phenolic content of 21.6–23.4 mg GAE/g DW and total flavonoid content of 5.0–5.23 mg QE/g. The ABTS radical scavenging activity of the tested powders ranged from 13.8 to 20.2 EC₅₀ mg DW/mL. The reducing antioxidant power (RED) of the powders was estimated at between 31.0 and 38.7 EC₅₀ mg DW/mL, and OH^• scavenging activity ranged from 1.9 to 2.6 EC₅₀ mg DW/mL. Microencapsulated cornflower RP can be valuable additives to food such as sweets, jellies, puddings, drinks, or dietary supplements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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11 pages, 2698 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation, Characterization, and Mechanism of Antifreeze Peptides from Defatted Antarctic Krill (Euphausia superba) on Lactobacillus rhamnosus

by Yu Liu, Xuena Yu, Yanling Zhu, Wei Yang, Yan Zeng, Yi Hu and Wei Jiang

Molecules 2022, 27(9), 2771; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092771 - 26 Apr 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2060

Abstract

Defatted Antarctic krill powder is the main by-product in the manufacturing of krill oil. Exploring a high value-added approach for utilizing this protein-rich material has received much attention in research and industry. Given this, the preparation and primary characterization of antifreeze peptides from defatted Antarctic krill (AKAPs) were carried out in this study. The cryoprotective effect of AKAPs on Lactobacillus rhamnosus ATCC7469 was also investigated. The results showed that Protamex was the optimum protease for AKAP preparation from defatted Antarctic krill. AKAPs were found to be rich in short peptides, with the MW ranging from 600 to 2000 Da (69.2%). An amino acid composition analysis showed that AKAPs were rich in glutamic acid (18.71%), aspartic acid (12.19%), leucine (7.87%), and lysine (7.61%). After freezing, the relative survival rate of Lactobacillus rhamnosus in the 1.0 mg/mL AKAP-treated group (96.83%) was significantly higher than in the saline group (24.12%) (p < 0.05). AKAPs also retarded the loss of acidifying activity of L. rhamnosus after freezing. AKAPs showed even better cryoprotective activity than three commercial cryoprotectants (sucrose, skim milk, and glycerol). In addition, AKAPs significantly alleviated the decrease in β-galactosidase and lactic dehydrogenase activities of L. rhamnosus (p < 0.05). Furthermore, AKAPs effectively protected the integrity of L. rhamnosus cell membranes from freezing damage and alleviated the leakage of intracellular substances. These findings demonstrate that AKAPs can be a potential cryoprotectant for preserving L. rhamnosus, providing a new way to use defatted Antarctic krill. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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14 pages, 3717 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of High-Intensity Ultrasonication on Properties of Cellulose Produced from the Hop Stems, the Byproduct of the Hop Cones Production

by Monika Szymańska-Chargot, Jolanta Cieśla, Patrycja Pękala, Piotr M. Pieczywek, Wiesław Oleszek, Marcin Żyła, Zbigniew Szkopek and Artur Zdunek

Molecules 2022, 27(9), 2624; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092624 - 19 Apr 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1726

Abstract

The goal of this work is to evaluate the hop stems, a byproduct of hop cones production, as a potential source of cellulose. Hop stems contain up to 29% of cellulose. The cellulose isolation was conducted through the thermochemical treatment. After high-speed blending, the cellulose was characterized by 67% of crystallinity degree obtained from X-ray diffraction and median diameter of 6.7 nm obtained from atomic force microscopy imaging. The high-intensity ultrasonication (HIUS) was applied to reach further disintegration of cellulose fibers. The longer HIUS treatment resulted in decrease in crystallinity degree even up to 60% and decrease in the fiber diameter up to 4 nm. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) spectra showed that HIUS treatment led to changes in intermolecular hydrogen bonds. The stability of cellulose dispersions versus length of HIUS treatment was monitored over 14 days with back dynamic light scattering and laser Doppler electrophoresis methods. Obtained results are evidence that the hop stems are a potential source of cellulose and that it is possible to obtain stable dispersions after HIUS treatment. This was the first time that the properties of hop cellulose have been described so extensively and in detail after the use of HIUS treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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Review

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25 pages, 2664 KiB

Open AccessReview

An Analysis of the Plant- and Animal-Based Hydrocolloids as Byproducts of the Food Industry

by Robert Waraczewski, Siemowit Muszyński and Bartosz G. Sołowiej

Molecules 2022, 27(24), 8686; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27248686 - 8 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4396

Abstract

Hydrocolloids are naturally occurring polysaccharides or proteins, which are used to gelatinize, modify texture, and thicken food products, and are also utilized in edible films and drug capsule production. Moreover, several hydrocolloids are known to have a positive impact on human health, including prebiotics rich in bioactive compounds. In this paper, plant-derived hydrocolloids from arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), kuzu (Pueraria montana var lobata), Sassafras tree (Sassafras albidum) leaves, sugarcane, acorn, and animal-derived gelatin have been reviewed. Hydrocolloid processing, utilization, physicochemical activities, composition, and health benefits have been described. The food industry generates waste such as plant parts, fibers, residue, scales, bones, fins, feathers, or skin, which are often discarded back into the environment, polluting it or into landfills, where they provide no use and generate transport and storage costs. Food industry waste frequently contains useful compounds, which can yield additional income if acquired, thus decreasing the environmental pollution. Despite conventional manufacturing, the aforementioned hydrocolloids can be recycled as byproducts, which not only minimizes waste, lowers transportation and storage expenses, and boosts revenue, but also enables the production of novel, functional, and healthy food additives for the food industry worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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21 pages, 4358 KiB

Open AccessReview

Risk Assessment of Coffee Cherry (Cascara) Fruit Products for Flour Replacement and Other Alternative Food Uses

by Sara Eckhardt, Heike Franke, Steffen Schwarz and Dirk W. Lachenmeier

Molecules 2022, 27(23), 8435; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238435 - 2 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4763

Abstract

Coffee bean harvesting incurs various by-products known for their long traditional use. However, they often still end up being a waste instead of being used to their full potential. On the European market, coffee cherry (cascara) products are not yet common, and a novel food approval for beverages made from coffee cherry pulp was issued only recently. In this article, exposure and risk assessment of various products such as juice, jam, jelly, puree, and flour made from coffee cherry pulp and husk are reviewed. Since caffeine in particular, as a bioactive ingredient, is considered a limiting factor, safe intake will be derived for different age groups, showing that even adolescents could consume limited quantities without adverse health effects. Moreover, the composition can be influenced by harvesting methods and processing steps. Most interestingly, dried and powdered coffee cherry can substitute the flour in bakery products by up to 15% without losing baking properties and sensory qualities. In particular, this use as a partial flour substitute is a possible approach to counteract rising grain prices, transport costs, and disrupted supply chains, which are caused by the Russia–Ukraine war and changing climatic conditions. Thus, the supply of affordable staple foods could be partially ensured for the inhabitants of countries that depend on imported wheat and cultivate coffee locally by harvesting both beans and by-products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Food By-Products)

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18 pages, 1892 KiB

Open AccessReview

Sustainable Approaches Using Green Technologies for Apple By-Product Valorisation as A New Perspective into the History of the Apple

by Rocío De la Peña-Armada and Inmaculada Mateos-Aparicio

Molecules 2022, 27(20), 6937; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27206937 - 16 Oct 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2820

Abstract

The apple has been recognised as the most culturally important fruit crop in temperate land areas. Centuries of human exploitation and development led to the production of thousands of apple cultivars. Nowadays, the apple represents the third most widely cultivated fruit in the world. About 30% of the total production of apples is processed, being juice and cider the main resulting products. Regarding this procedure, a large quantity of apple by-product is generated, which tends to be undervalued, and commonly remains underutilised, landfilled, or incinerated. However, apple by-product is a proven source of bioactive compounds, namely dietary fibre, fatty acids, triterpenes, or polyphenols. Therefore, the application of green technologies should be considered in order to improve the functionality of apple by-product while promoting its use as the raw material of a novel product line. The present work provides a holistic view of the apple’s historical evolution, characterises apple by-product, and reviews the application of green technologies for improving its functionality. These sustainable procedures can enable the transformation of this perishable material into a novel ingredient opening up new prospects for the apple’s potential use and consumption. Full article

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