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Nanomaterials
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Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles
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Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles

A special issue of Nanomaterials (ISSN 2079-4991). This special issue belongs to the section "Biology and Medicines".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 March 2025 | Viewed by 12602

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Brigita Tomšič

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Guest Editor
Department of Textiles, Graphic arts and Design, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Interests: chemical modification of textile surfaces; chemical finishing; nanotechnology; functionalization of textiles; antimicrobial activity; biodegradability of fibre-forming polymers

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The importance of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of nanoparticles in protecting against the growth of potential pathogens and preventing various emerging diseases is a driving force for the continuous progress of scientific knowledge to harness the full potential of nanoparticles for various beneficial purposes. While antimicrobial nanoparticles play an important role in preventing and fighting infections or accelerating the healing of skin wounds in medicine, as well as in preventing microbial contamination of water, food packaging, or various consumer products, antioxidant nanoparticles have been found plausible for the successful treatment of various inflammatory diseases related to oxidative stress, such as neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases as well as certain types of cancer. In addition, such nanoparticles can also be used in cosmetics, especially for skin care products and anti-ageing treatments.

Although nanoparticles with antimicrobial and antioxidant activity show promising potential for application in various fields, caution is required as there is still a lack of standardized analytical methods that would provide reliable information on the safety and possible side effects of nanoparticles. Accordingly, careful consideration of the benefits and associated potential risks is essential before widespread use.

We invite researchers to submit original and review articles on ongoing advances in the antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of nanoparticles. Possible topics include: Synthesis, modification and functionalisation of nanoparticles for enhanced antimicrobial and antioxidant activity; Surface functionalisation of solid materials; Characterisation techniques; Mechanism of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity; In vitro and in vivo studies of antimicrobial and antioxidant activity for establishing hygiene, infection control and/or antioxidant therapies; Evaluation of potential health and environmental risks.

Prof. Dr. Brigita Tomšič
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • nanoparticles
  • functionalization
  • surface modification, hygiene and infection control
  • antioxidant therapies
  • environment
  • toxicity
  • oxidative stress
  • biocompatibility
  • risk management

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

22 pages, 6113 KiB  
Article
Laponite vs. Montmorillonite as Eugenol Nanocarriers for Low Density Polyethylene Active Packaging Films
by Achilleas Kechagias, Constantinos E. Salmas, Nikolaos Chalmpes, Areti A. Leontiou, Michael A. Karakassides, Emmanuel P. Giannelis and Aris E. Giannakas
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(23), 1938; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14231938 - 2 Dec 2024
Viewed by 797
Abstract
Although a lot of recent research revealed advantages of novel biopolymers’ implementation as active food packaging polymers, there is not an equivalent effort from industry to use such films, probably because of the required cost to change the supply chain and the equipment. [...] Read more.
Although a lot of recent research revealed advantages of novel biopolymers’ implementation as active food packaging polymers, there is not an equivalent effort from industry to use such films, probably because of the required cost to change the supply chain and the equipment. This study investigates the use of two natural abundant nanoclays, laponite (Lap) and montmorillonite (Mt), as eugenol slow-release carriers for enhancing the functionality of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) active packaging films. The target is to combine the spirit of the circular economy with the existent technology and the broadly used materials to develop a novel attractive product for active food packaging applications. Utilizing a vacuum-assisted adsorption method, eugenol was successfully intercalated into Lap and Mt nanoclays, forming EG@Lap and EG@Mt nanohybrids. Testing results confirmed effective integration and dispersion of the nanohybrids within the LDPE matrix. The most promising final film seems to be the LDPE with 15% w/w EG@Lap nanohybrid which exhibited a higher release rate (k2 = 5.29 × 10−4 s−1) for temperatures ≤70 °C, similar mechanical properties, a significantly improved water barrier (Dwv = 11.7 × 10−5 cm2·s−1), and a slightly improved oxygen barrier (PeO2 = 2.03 × 10−8 cm2·s−1) compared with neat LDPE. Antimicrobial and sensory tests on fresh minced pork showed two days’ shelf-life extension compared to pure LDPE and one more day compared to LDPE with 15% w/w EG@Mt nanohybrid. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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17 pages, 2840 KiB  
Article
Green Synthesis of Al-ZnO Nanoparticles Using Cucumis maderaspatanus Plant Extracts: Analysis of Structural, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activities
by S. K. Johnsy Sugitha, R. Gladis Latha, Raja Venkatesan, Seong-Cheol Kim, Alexandre A. Vetcher and Mohammad Rashid Khan
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(22), 1851; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14221851 - 20 Nov 2024
Viewed by 700
Abstract
Nanoparticles derived from biological sources are currently garnering significant interest due to their diverse range of potential applications. The purpose of the study was to synthesize Al-doped nanoparticles of zinc oxide (ZnO) from leaf extracts of Cucumis maderaspatanus and assess their antioxidant and [...] Read more.
Nanoparticles derived from biological sources are currently garnering significant interest due to their diverse range of potential applications. The purpose of the study was to synthesize Al-doped nanoparticles of zinc oxide (ZnO) from leaf extracts of Cucumis maderaspatanus and assess their antioxidant and antimicrobial activity using some bacterial and fungal strains. These nanoparticles were analyzed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), ultraviolet–visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDAX), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and thermogravimetric analysis/differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA). The average crystalline size was determined to be 25 nm, as evidenced by the XRD analysis. In the UV-vis spectrum, the absorption band was observed around 351 nm. It was discovered that the Al-ZnO nanoparticles had a bandgap of 3.25 eV using the Tauc relation. Furthermore, by FTIR measurement, the presence of the OH group, C=C bending of the alkene group, and C=O stretching was confirmed. The SEM analysis revealed that the nanoparticles were distributed uniformly throughout the sample. The EDAX spectrum clearly confirmed the presence of Zn, Al, and O elements in the Al-ZnO nanoparticles. The TEM results also indicated that the green synthesized Al-ZnO nanoparticles displayed hexagonal shapes with an average size of 25 nm. The doping of aluminum may enhance the thermal stability of the ZnO by altering the crystal structure or phase composition. The observed changes in TG, DTA, and DTG curves reflect the impact of aluminum doping on the structural and thermal properties of ZnO nanoparticles. The antibacterial activity of the Al-ZnO nanoparticles using the agar diffusion method showed that the maximum zone of inhibition has been noticed against organisms of Gram-positive S. aureus compared with Gram-negative E. coli. Moreover, antifungal activity using the agar cup method showed that the maximum zone of inhibition was observed on Aspergilus flavus, followed by Candida albicans. Al-doping nanoparticles increases the number of charge carriers, which can enhance the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) under UV light exposure. These ROS are known to possess strong antimicrobial properties. Al-doping can improve the crystallinity of ZnO, resulting in a larger surface area that facilitates more interaction with microbial cells. The structural and biological characteristics of Al-ZnO nanoparticles might be responsible for the enhanced antibacterial activity exhibited in the antibacterial studies. Al-ZnO nanoparticles with Cucumis maderaspatanus leaf extract produced via the green synthesis methods have remarkable antioxidant activity by scavenging free radicals against DPPH radicals, according to these results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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16 pages, 858 KiB  
Article
Environmentally Friendly Microemulsions of Essential Oils of Artemisia annua and Salvia fruticosa to Protect Crops against Fusarium verticillioides
by Lucia Grifoni, Cristiana Sacco, Rosa Donato, Spyros Tziakas, Ekaterina-Michaela Tomou, Helen Skaltsa, Giulia Vanti, Maria Camilla Bergonzi and Anna Rita Bilia
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(21), 1715; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14211715 - 27 Oct 2024
Viewed by 740
Abstract
Essential oils (EOs) are reported to be natural pesticides, but their use to protect crops is very limited due to EOs’ high instability and great volatility. Nanovectors represent a very smart alternative, and in this study, EOs from Artemisia annua (AEO) and Salvia [...] Read more.
Essential oils (EOs) are reported to be natural pesticides, but their use to protect crops is very limited due to EOs’ high instability and great volatility. Nanovectors represent a very smart alternative, and in this study, EOs from Artemisia annua (AEO) and Salvia fruticosa (SEO) were formulated into microemulsions and tested against Fusarium verticillioides. The EOs were extracted by steam distillation and analyzed by GC–MS. The main constituents of AEO were camphor, artemisia ketone, and 1,8-cineole; the main constituents of SEO were 1,8-cineole, camphor, α-pinene, and β-pinene. Artemisia ketone and 1,8-cineole were used to calculate the recovery and chemical stability of the microemulsions. The microemulsions were loaded with 10 mg/mL of EOs, and the recoveries were 99.8% and 99.6% for AEO and SEO, respectively. The sizes of the lipid phases were 255.3 ± 0.6 nm and 323.7 ± 2.3 nm for the AEO and SEO microemulsions, respectively. Activity against F. verticillioides was tested using amphotericin B as the positive control. F. verticillioides was very susceptible to both EOs. When loaded in the microemulsions, AEO and SEO remained very active at a dose of 1.4 and 1.2 mg, with a 99.99% reduction of F. verticillioides. The findings suggest AEO and SEO microemulsions are suitable carriers for the protection of crops against F. verticillioides. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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16 pages, 2784 KiB  
Article
Salmon-IgM Functionalized-PLGA Nanosystem for Florfenicol Delivery as an Antimicrobial Strategy against Piscirickettsia salmonis
by Felipe Velásquez, Mateus Frazao, Arturo Diez, Felipe Villegas, Marcelo Álvarez-Bidwell, J. Andrés Rivas-Pardo, Eva Vallejos-Vidal, Felipe Reyes-López, Daniela Toro-Ascuy, Manuel Ahumada and Sebastián Reyes-Cerpa
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(20), 1658; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14201658 - 16 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1049
Abstract
Salmonid rickettsial septicemia (SRS), caused by Piscirickettsia salmonis, has been the most severe health concern for the Chilean salmon industry. The efforts to control P. salmonis infections have focused on using antibiotics and vaccines. However, infected salmonids exhibit limited responses to the [...] Read more.
Salmonid rickettsial septicemia (SRS), caused by Piscirickettsia salmonis, has been the most severe health concern for the Chilean salmon industry. The efforts to control P. salmonis infections have focused on using antibiotics and vaccines. However, infected salmonids exhibit limited responses to the treatments. Here, we developed a poly (D, L-lactide-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-nanosystem functionalized with Atlantic salmon IgM (PLGA-IgM) to specifically deliver florfenicol into infected cells. Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) were prepared via the double emulsion solvent-evaporation method in the presence of florfenicol. Later, the PLGA-NPs were functionalized with Atlantic salmon IgM through carbodiimide chemistry. The nanosystem showed an average size of ~380–410 nm and a negative surface charge. Further, florfenicol encapsulation efficiency was close to 10%. We evaluated the internalization of the nanosystem and its impact on bacterial load in SHK-1 cells by using confocal microscopy and qPCR. The results suggest that stimulation with the nanosystem elicits a decrease in the bacterial load of P. salmonis when it infects Atlantic salmon macrophages. Overall, the IgM-functionalized PLGA-based nanosystem represents an alternative to the administration of antibiotics in salmon farming, complementing the delivery of antibiotics with the stimulation of the immune response of infected macrophages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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18 pages, 7445 KiB  
Article
Unveiling the Potential of CuO and Cu2O Nanoparticles against Novel Copper-Resistant Pseudomonas Strains: An In-Depth Comparison
by Olesia Havryliuk, Garima Rathee, Jeniffer Blair, Vira Hovorukha, Oleksandr Tashyrev, Jordi Morató, Leonardo M. Pérez and Tzanko Tzanov
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(20), 1644; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14201644 - 13 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1444
Abstract
Four novel Pseudomonas strains with record resistance to copper (Cu2+) previously isolated from ecologically diverse samples (P. lactis UKR1, P. panacis UKR2, P. veronii UKR3, and P. veronii UKR4) were tested against sonochemically synthesised copper-oxide (I) (Cu2O) and [...] Read more.
Four novel Pseudomonas strains with record resistance to copper (Cu2+) previously isolated from ecologically diverse samples (P. lactis UKR1, P. panacis UKR2, P. veronii UKR3, and P. veronii UKR4) were tested against sonochemically synthesised copper-oxide (I) (Cu2O) and copper-oxide (II) (CuO) nanoparticles (NPs). Nanomaterials characterisation by X-ray diffractometry (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM) confirmed the synthesis of CuO and Cu2O NPs. CuO NPs exhibited better performance in inhibiting bacterial growth due to their heightened capacity to induce oxidative stress. The greater stability and geometrical shape of CuO NPs were disclosed as important features associated with bacterial cell toxicity. SEM and TEM images confirmed that both NPs caused membrane disruption, altered cell morphology, and pronounced membrane vesiculation, a distinctive feature of bacteria dealing with stressor factors. Finally, Cu2O and CuO NPs effectively decreased the biofilm-forming ability of the Cu2+-resistant UKR strains as well as degraded pre-established biofilm, matching NPs’ antimicrobial performance. Despite the similarities in the mechanisms of action revealed by both NPs, distinctive behaviours were also detected for the different species of wild-type Pseudomonas analysed. In summary, these findings underscore the efficacy of nanotechnology-driven strategies for combating metal tolerance in bacteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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21 pages, 5561 KiB  
Article
Nanocurcumin-Based Sugar-Free Formulation: Development and Impact on Diabetes and Oxidative Stress Reduction
by Safa Ferradj, Madiha Melha Yahoum, Mounia Rebiha, Ikram Nabi, Selma Toumi, Sonia Lefnaoui, Amel Hadj-Ziane-Zafour, Nabil Touzout, Hichem Tahraoui, Adil Mihoub, Mahmoud F. Seleiman, Nawab Ali, Jie Zhang and Abdeltif Amrane
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(13), 1105; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14131105 - 27 Jun 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1469
Abstract
The objective of this study is the development of innovative nanocurcumin-based formulations designed for the treatment and prevention of oxidative stress and diabetes. Nanocurcumin was obtained through a micronization process and subsequently encapsulated within biopolymers derived from corn starch and fenugreek mucilage, achieving [...] Read more.
The objective of this study is the development of innovative nanocurcumin-based formulations designed for the treatment and prevention of oxidative stress and diabetes. Nanocurcumin was obtained through a micronization process and subsequently encapsulated within biopolymers derived from corn starch and fenugreek mucilage, achieving encapsulation rates of 75% and 85%, respectively. Subsequently, the encapsulated nanocurcumin was utilized in the formulation of sugar-free syrups based on Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. The stability of the resulting formulations was assessed by monitoring particle size distribution and zeta potential over a 25-day period. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) revealed a particle size of 119.9 nm for the fenugreek mucilage-based syrup (CURF) and 117 nm for the corn starch-based syrup (CURA), with polydispersity indices PDIs of 0.509 and 0.495, respectively. The dissolution rates of the encapsulated nanocurcumin were significantly enhanced, showing a 67% improvement in CURA and a 70% enhancement in CURF compared with crude curcumin (12.82%). Both formulations demonstrated excellent antioxidant activity, as evidenced by polyphenol quantification using the 2.2-diphenyl 1-pycrilhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. In the evaluation of antidiabetic activity conducted on Wistar rats, a substantial reduction in fasting blood sugar levels from 392 to 187 mg/mL was observed. The antioxidant properties of CURF in reducing oxidative stress were clearly demonstrated by a macroscopic observation of the rats’ livers, including their color and appearance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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21 pages, 8992 KiB  
Article
Carbon Nanodisks Decorated with Guanidinylated Hyperbranched Polyethyleneimine Derivatives as Efficient Antibacterial Agents
by Kyriaki-Marina Lyra, Ioannis Tournis, Mohammed Subrati, Konstantinos Spyrou, Aggeliki Papavasiliou, Chrysoula Athanasekou, Sergios Papageorgiou, Elias Sakellis, Michael A. Karakassides and Zili Sideratou
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(8), 677; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14080677 - 13 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1353
Abstract
Non-toxic carbon-based hybrid nanomaterials based on carbon nanodisks were synthesized and assessed as novel antibacterial agents. Specifically, acid-treated carbon nanodisks (oxCNDs), as a safe alternative material to graphene oxide, interacted through covalent and non-covalent bonding with guanidinylated hyperbranched polyethyleneimine derivatives (GPEI5K and GPEI25K), [...] Read more.
Non-toxic carbon-based hybrid nanomaterials based on carbon nanodisks were synthesized and assessed as novel antibacterial agents. Specifically, acid-treated carbon nanodisks (oxCNDs), as a safe alternative material to graphene oxide, interacted through covalent and non-covalent bonding with guanidinylated hyperbranched polyethyleneimine derivatives (GPEI5K and GPEI25K), affording the oxCNDs@GPEI5K and oxCNDs@GPEI25K hybrids. Their physico-chemical characterization confirmed the successful and homogenous attachment of GPEIs on the surface of oxCNDs, which, due to the presence of guanidinium groups, offered them improved aqueous stability. Moreover, the antibacterial activity of oxCNDs@GPEIs was evaluated against Gram-negative E. coli and Gram-positive S. aureus bacteria. It was found that both hybrids exhibited enhanced antibacterial activity, with oxCNDs@GPEI5K being more active than oxCNDs@GPEI25K. Their MIC and MBC values were found to be much lower than those of oxCNDs, revealing that the GPEI attachment endowed the hybrids with enhanced antibacterial properties. These improved properties were attributed to the polycationic character of the oxCNDs@GPEIs, which enables effective interaction with the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane and cell walls, leading to cell envelope damage, and eventually cell lysis. Finally, oxCNDs@GPEIs showed minimal cytotoxicity on mammalian cells, indicating that these hybrid nanomaterials have great potential to be used as safe and efficient antibacterial agents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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17 pages, 6532 KiB  
Article
Silver-Sulfamethazine-Conjugated β-Cyclodextrin/Dextran-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles for Pathogen Inhibition
by Anastasiia B. Shatan, Vitalii Patsula, Hana Macková, Andrii Mahun, Renáta Lehotská, Elena Piecková and Daniel Horák
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(4), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14040371 - 17 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1808
Abstract
In the fight against antibiotic resistance, which is rising to dangerously high levels worldwide, new strategies based on antibiotic-conjugated biocompatible polymers bound to magnetic nanoparticles that allow the drug to be manipulated and delivered to a specific target are being proposed. Here, we [...] Read more.
In the fight against antibiotic resistance, which is rising to dangerously high levels worldwide, new strategies based on antibiotic-conjugated biocompatible polymers bound to magnetic nanoparticles that allow the drug to be manipulated and delivered to a specific target are being proposed. Here, we report the direct surface engineering of nontoxic iron oxide nanoparticles (IONs) using biocompatible dextran (Dex) covalently linked to β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) with the ability to form non-covalent complexes with silver-sulfamethazine (SMT-Ag). To achieve a good interaction of β-CD-modified dextran with the surface of the nanoparticles, it was functionalized with diphosphonic acid (DPA) that provides strong binding to Fe atoms. The synthesized polymers and nanoparticles were characterized by various methods, such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopies, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), etc. The resulting magnetic ION@DPA-Dex-β-CD-SMT-Ag nanoparticles were colloidally stable in water and contained 24 μg of antibiotic per mg of the particles. When tested for in vitro antimicrobial activity on Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) bacteria and fungi (yeast Candida albicans and mold Aspergillus niger), the particles showed promising potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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22 pages, 3731 KiB  
Article
Antimicrobial Activity of Citrate-Coated Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles
by Ekaterina Vladimirovna Silina, Olga Sergeevna Ivanova, Natalia Evgenevna Manturova, Olga Anatolyevna Medvedeva, Alina Vladimirovna Shevchenko, Ekaterina Sergeevna Vorsina, Raghu Ram Achar, Vladimir Anatolevich Parfenov and Victor Aleksandrovich Stupin
Nanomaterials 2024, 14(4), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano14040354 - 13 Feb 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2154
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial activity of citrate-stabilized sols of cerium oxide nanoparticles at different concentrations via different microbiological methods and to compare the effect with the peroxidase activity of nanoceria for the subsequent development of a regeneration-stimulating [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial activity of citrate-stabilized sols of cerium oxide nanoparticles at different concentrations via different microbiological methods and to compare the effect with the peroxidase activity of nanoceria for the subsequent development of a regeneration-stimulating medical and/or veterinary wound-healing product providing new types of antimicrobial action. The object of this study was cerium oxide nanoparticles synthesized from aqueous solutions of cerium (III) nitrate hexahydrate and citric acid (the size of the nanoparticles was 3–5 nm, and their aggregates were 60–130 nm). Nanoceria oxide sols with a wide range of concentrations (10−1–10−6 M) as well as powder (the dry substance) were used. Both bacterial and fungal strains (Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Proteus vulgaris, Candida albicans, Aspergillus brasielensis) were used for the microbiological studies. The antimicrobial activity of nanoceria was investigated across a wide range of concentrations using three methods sequentially; the antimicrobial activity was studied by examining diffusion into agar, the serial dilution method was used to detect the minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations, and, finally, gas chromatography with mass-selective detection was performed to study the inhibition of E. coli’s growth. To study the redox activity of different concentrations of nanocerium, we studied the intensity of chemiluminescence in the oxidation reaction of luminol in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. As a result of this study’s use of the agar diffusion and serial dilution methods followed by sowing, no significant evidence of antimicrobial activity was found. At the same time, in the current study of antimicrobial activity against E. coli strains using gas chromatography with mass spectrometry, the ability of nanoceria to significantly inhibit the growth and reproduction of microorganisms after 24 h and, in particular, after 48 h of incubation at a wide range of concentrations, 10−2–10−5 M (48–95% reduction in the number of microbes with a significant dose-dependent effect) was determined as the optimum concentration. A reliable redox activity of nanoceria coated with citrate was established, increasing in proportion to the concentration, confirming the oxidative mechanism of the action of nanoceria. Thus, nanoceria have a dose-dependent bacteriostatic effect, which is most pronounced at concentrations of 10−2–10−3 M. Unlike the effects of classical antiseptics, the effect was manifested from 2 days and increased during the observation. To study the antimicrobial activity of nanomaterials, it is advisable not to use classical qualitative and semi-quantitative methods; rather, the employment of more accurate quantitative methods is advised, in particular, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, during several days of incubation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activity of Nanoparticles)
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