Nitrogen

Estimating indigenous rhizobial populations is crucial for understanding soil rhizobia abundance, determining the potential need for inoculation, and evaluating the performance of introduced inoculant strains. However, in southern Ethiopia, information on the population abundance of soybean-nodulating rhizobia is limited. To address this gap, the present study was conducted to evaluate the population abundance of indigenous soybean-nodulating rhizobia and to assess the influence of cropping history and soil properties on rhizobial abundance. The study was conducted across five sites suitable for soybean cultivation in southern Ethiopia: Arsi-Negelle, Boricha, Dore, Hawassa, and Wondo Genet. The study sites represented a range of cropping systems, including sole maize, sole tobacco, sole haricot bean, maize–potato intercropping, and crop rotation. Composite soil samples were collected from a depth of 0–20 cm, and rhizobial abundance was determined using the most probable number (MPN) technique. Indigenous rhizobial populations ranged from 0 to 1.7 × 10¹ cells g⁻¹ of dry soil. Overall, the population levels were low, suggesting that inoculation with effective rhizobial strains would likely improve nodulation and biological nitrogen fixation. Relatively higher rhizobial population densities were observed at Arsi-Negelle under haricot bean cropping history. Statistically significant positive correlations were found between rhizobial abundance and cation exchange capacity, organic carbon, and organic matter. In general, native rhizobial populations across all study locations were below levels considered sufficient to support effective soybean nodulation and nitrogen fixation, indicating the need for inoculation to enhance soybean productivity in the study areas. Full article

The application of plasma-activated water and biostimulants offers a sustainable approach to supporting plant growth under reduced-nutrient conditions by supplying bioavailable nitrogen. This study investigated the growth and postharvest performance of hydroponically grown cos lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) supplied with three Hoagland-based nutrient treatments: half-strength solution prepared with tap water (HS), half-strength solution with plasma-activated water (HS+PAW), and half-strength solution with plasma-activated water containing 1 mL L⁻¹ milk protein hydrolysate (HS+PAW+MPH). Plants treated with PAW, particularly those in the HS+PAW+MPH, exhibited increases in growth, biomass accumulation, and mineral composition, with reduced nitrate content compared to controls. At harvest, lettuce under HS+PAW+MPH exhibited nearly double fresh yield and enhanced dry matter, protein, lipid, phenolic, and flavonoid profiles as well as increased antioxidant capacity, indicating improved nitrogen utilization and nutritional quality under reduced nutrient input. Postharvest quality was evaluated by packing samples in polypropylene bags and storing them at 10 ± 1 °C and 95–98% relative humidity for 21 days. The HS+PAW+MPH treatment substantially suppressed respiration and production of ethylene, limited weight loss and color change, and better preserved pigments, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant stability compared to HS and HS+PAW, indicating HS+PAW+MPH as a sustainable nutrient management approach for hydroponic systems. Full article

The Overseer model is widely used in New Zealand as a precision-agriculture-related tool for estimating nitrate (NO₃⁻) leaching losses in agricultural systems. This study evaluated the accuracy of the Overseer model in predicting nitrate (NO₃⁻) leaching through a two-year lysimeter experiment conducted at Woodhaven Gardens, New Zealand, under beetroot and pak choi cultivation. Seven distinct nitrogen (N) fertilizer treatments were applied to assess model performance. In year 1, Overseer overestimated NO₃⁻ leaching by an average of 45.2 kg N/ha (15.7%), and in year 2, the model overestimated by 35.2 kg N/ha (43.5%). A sensitivity analysis highlighted soil texture, impeded layer depth and crop residue incorporation as key drivers of leaching variability, underscoring the need for improved model calibration. Overseer performed reasonably well under lysimeter conditions, with a strong linear relationship (Pearson’s correlation coefficient r = 0.89, p < 0.0001) between measured and predicted values and explaining 77% of the variance (R² = 0.77) in the observed data. The model predicted a baseline leaching loss of 39.4 kg N/ha/year even when measured losses were zero. Overseer demonstrates moderate reliability in predicting NO₃⁻ leaching under vegetable cropping systems but exhibits notable limitations in handling crop-specific N dynamics, soil hydrology, and fertilizer timing. Full article

Water and nitrogen supply are key factors limiting the establishment of alpine plant seedlings and the efficiency of ecological restoration on the Tibetan Plateau. As an endemic shrub to Tibet, the morphological and physiological response mechanisms of Piptanthus nepalensis (Hook.) D. Don to coupled water and nitrogen stress remain poorly understood. This study employed a pot experiment with a completely randomized two-factor design, incorporating five water gradients (0–100% field capacity, FC) and five nitrogen levels (0–4 g·plant⁻¹ urea). The aim was to elucidate the regulatory mechanisms of water/nitrogen coupling on Piptanthus nepalensis growth, physiology, and morphogenesis. The results indicated the following: (1) A significant water/nitrogen coupling effect was observed, with optimal water/nitrogen combinations producing pronounced synergistic effects. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that the first two axes cumulatively explained 99.32% of the morphological variation. The W3N3 treatment (40–60% FC water + 2 g·plant⁻¹ nitrogen) exhibited optimal growth traits and maximum leaf elongation, establishing the optimal water and fertilizer management threshold for this species. (2) Confronted with two starkly contrasting stresses—drought (W4, W5) and waterlogging (W1)—plants adopted convergent “conservative” morphological adaptation strategies (significantly reduced leaf length and width) to lower metabolic expenditure. (3) Photosynthetic physiological analysis revealed that under extreme water deficiency (W5) or waterlogging (W1) stress, intercellular CO₂ concentration (Ci) paradoxically increased, indicating a shift in photosynthetic suppression mechanisms from stomatal limitation to non-stomatal limitation (metabolic injury). (4) The Mantel Test confirmed that photosynthetic physiological traits significantly drove morphological trait variation (p < 0.001), establishing a close feedback loop between “physiological function and morphological structure”. Conclusions: Moderate water deficit (40–60% FC) combined with moderate nitrogen fertilization (2 g·plant⁻¹) effectively alleviates non-stomatal limitation and releases morphological constraints, thereby promoting rapid growth in Piptanthus nepalensis. This study reveals the phenotypic plasticity and convergent adaptation mechanisms of Piptanthus nepalensis under water/nitrogen co-stress, providing precise water and fertilizer management guidelines for vegetation restoration in degraded ecosystems of Tibet. Full article

Estimating nitrogen (N) and the corresponding crude protein (CP) content in forage crops is essential for optimizing fertilization and livestock nutrition. However, standard methods such as the Dumas and Kjeldahl techniques are destructive, costly, and impractical for field use in certain regions of developing countries. This study evaluated four non-destructive approaches—morphometric measurements, Pantone^® color scales, smartphone-based RGB analysis (ColorDetector app), and SPAD chlorophyll readings—for predicting N and CP in Megathyrsus maximus (Mombasa grass). A total of 120 samples were collected under three nitrogen fertilization levels and assessed using linear mixed-effects models with cross-validation. Morphometric variables showed poor performance (R² < 0.01), indicating low correlation with nutrient content. Pantone-based RGB models provided slightly better predictions (R² ≈ 0.30) but were limited by subjectivity and discrete data. SPAD-based models demonstrated moderate predictive accuracy (R² ≈ 0.53; RMSE ≈ 0.46%). The highest accuracy was achieved with smartphone-derived RGB data, where full RGB models reached R² = 0.60 and RMSE = 0.45%. Based on these results, a practical green color scale was developed from RGB values to support real-time, in-field nitrogen and crude protein assessment. This study highlights smartphone imaging as a scalable, low-cost, and accurate tool for non-destructive estimation of nitrogen and crude protein in tropical forages, offering an accessible alternative to laboratory methods for producers and field technicians. Full article

Recently, the EU approved RENURE-criteria materials to be used as substitutes for synthetic N fertilisers. Several studies have been performed on the agronomic efficacy and potential environmental impacts of different bio-based fertilisers (BBFs) from biomass recovery, including the RENURE-criteria materials. But information is lacking about their effectiveness under abiotic stress conditions like salinity and drought. The predictions for climate change-induced increased drought and soil salinisation for the European soils have also increased, making it inevitable to understand BBF performance in these impending situations. Two RENURE-criteria top-priority materials (ammonium nitrate (AN) and ammonium sulphate (AS) and another commercially used BBF—an evaporator concentrate (CaE)) were evaluated in a pot trial growing spinach under salinity and drought stress with a reference ‘no stress’ condition to examine crop growth, nutrient uptake, and nitrogen fertiliser replacement value (NFRV). Agronomically, BBFs performed at par with the synthetic fertiliser (SF) under unstressed and salt-stressed conditions, whereas, under drought stress, BBFs outperformed the SF treatment. AS exhibited the highest yield and nutrient uptake, displaying an NFRV of 3.1 and 1.8 under no-stress and salt-stress conditions, respectively. Salt stress did not negatively impact the crops grown in this trial, potentially due to the higher potassium content in the system, which alleviated the possible negative impacts of high sodium. This study delves into the agronomic response, without evaluating crop physiological changes, and, hence, should be taken as a preliminary step into further investigation of observed elemental interactions (that could be potentially driving stress mitigation) while also examining the crop physiology during the duration of stress. Full article

Pasture-based ruminant systems link nitrogen (N) nutrition with ecosystem N cycling. Grazing ruminants convert fibrous forages into milk and meat but excrete 65 to 80% of ingested N, creating excreta hotspots that drive ammonia volatilization, nitrate leaching, and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. This review synthesizes ecological and ruminant nutrition evidence on N flows, emphasizing microbial processes, biological N₂ fixation, plant diversity, and urine patch biogeochemistry, and evaluates strategies to improve N use efficiency (NUE). We examine rumen N metabolism in relation to microbial protein synthesis, urea recycling, and dietary factors including crude protein concentration, energy supply, forage composition, and plant secondary compounds that modulate protein degradability and microbial N capture, thereby influencing N partitioning among animal products, urine, and feces, as reflected in milk and blood urea N. We also examine how grazing patterns and excreta distribution, assessed with sensor technologies, modify N flows. Evidence indicates that integrated management combining dietary manipulation, forage diversity, targeted grazing, and decision tools can increase farm-gate NUE from 20–25% to over 30% while sustaining performance. Framing these processes within the global N cycle positions pasture-based ruminant systems as critical leverage points for aligning ruminant production with environmental and climate sustainability goals. Full article

Agronomic systems that can guarantee consistent and sufficient crop yields must be developed and implemented in order to address the problems presented by climate change, especially the increase in average annual temperatures and the unequal distribution of precipitation. Over the course of five successive growing seasons (2019–2024), a Poly-Factorial field experiment was carried out at the Agricultural Research and Development Station (ARDS) Turda, Romania, which is situated in the hilly region of the Transylvanian Plain. The study investigated the combined effects of soil tillage system (conventional tillage—CS; no-tillage—NT) and fertilization strategies (N₄₈P₄₈K₄₈ at sowing vs. N₄₈P₄₈K₄₈ at sowing + N₄₀.₅CaO₁₀.₅MgO₇ applied in early spring at the growth resumption) on the quantitative and qualitative performance of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Results showed a modest yield difference of 206 kg ha⁻¹ between the two tillage systems, favoring conventional tillage. However, the application of additional early-spring fertilization resulted in a significant average yield increase of 338 kg ha⁻¹. Yield variability across the five years ranged from 262 to 1797 kg ha⁻¹, highlighting the strong influence of climatic conditions on crop performance and emphasizing the need for adaptive management practices under changing environmental conditions. Full article

The increasing demand for sustainable agriculture requires innovative strategies to enhance nitrogen use efficiency while minimizing environmental losses associated with conventional fertilizers. This study aimed to develop and compare ammonium chloride- and ammonium nitrate-modified nanobiochar as controlled-release nitrogen carriers and to elucidate their effects on nitrogen retention, soil properties, and physiological nitrogen utilization in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.). Nitrogen-modified nanobiochar was synthesized using ammonium chloride (NB-AC) and ammonium nitrate (NB-AN) at three nitrogen rates (0.03, 0.06, and 0.12 g N g⁻¹ NB) and applied to soil at 1% (w/w). Soil properties, nutrient dynamics, and plant growth and physiological traits were analyzed after 15 and 30 days. Nitrogen modification significantly improved soil nitrogen retention and nutrient availability compared with unmodified nanobiochar. The highest nitrogen loading treatments (NB-AC3 and NB-AN3) notably improved spinach growth, photosynthetic efficiency, pigment content, nitrogen metabolism enzymatic activities, and accumulation of key metabolites (soluble sugars, flavonoids). Nitrogen-release assessments indicated a pronounced controlled-release with reduced nitrogen leaching and greater retention, particularly under NB-AN3. Overall, this study demonstrates that nitrogen-modified nanobiochar functions as an effective nitrogen carrier that enhances nitrogen utilization and growth. These findings provide mechanistic insights into its potential as a sustainable alternative to conventional nitrogen fertilizers. Full article

This study evaluated the effects of applying fecal sludge-based co-compost (CC) integrated with chemical fertilizers on soil nutrient status, organic carbon (OC) storage, and economic returns in paddy soils. Ten integrated nutrient management (INM) treatments were tested, i.e., BRRI recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), CC 5.0 t ha⁻¹, RDF + CC 2.0 t ha⁻¹, RDF + CC 1.5 t ha⁻¹, RDF + CC 1.0 t ha⁻¹, RDF + CC 0.5 t ha⁻¹, 75% RDF + CC 2.0 t ha⁻¹, 75% RDF + CC 1.5 t ha⁻¹, 75% RDF + CC 1.0 t ha⁻¹, and 75% RDF + CC 0.5 t ha⁻¹. Two rice varieties were cultivated over two consecutive seasons—winter rice (boro) and monsoon rice (aman)—in the experimental field. Soil samples (0–15 cm) were collected before and after the seasons and fractionated into labile particulate organic matter (>53 µm) and stable mineral-associated organic matter (<53 µm). Bulk soils and CC were analyzed for OC, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulfur (S), and heavy metals, while the fractions were analyzed for OC and N. Across both seasons, 75% RDF combined with 2.0 t ha⁻¹ or 1.5 t ha⁻¹ of CC consistently showed the highest OC, total N, and soil C stock, with moderate P, K, and S levels. Sole RDF produced the lowest OC and N. Among fractions, stable OC was the highest in the 75% RDF + 2.0 t ha⁻¹ CC treatment, statistically similar to 75% RDF + 1.5 t ha⁻¹ CC, and the lowest under RDF alone. Economically, sole RDF yielded the highest profit, while full RDF + CC achieved competitive returns. Reduced RDF + CC treatments (75% RDF + 1.5 or 2.0 t ha⁻¹ CC) offered slightly lower returns but improved soil sustainability indicators. Overall, applying 75% RDF + 1.5 t ha⁻¹ CC provided the most cost-effective balance of nutrient enrichment, soil C stock, and profitability. This CC-based INM approach reduces chemical fertilizer dependency, enhances soil health, and promotes sustainable waste management, supporting environmentally resilient rice production. Full article

Sustainable nitrogen (N) management is critical for enhancing wheat production in the water-limited environment of China’s Loess Plateau. This study investigated the effects of four N rates (0, 120, 180, and 240 kg N ha⁻¹) and two sowing methods, furrow sowing (FS) and drill sowing (DS), on wheat yield, grain quality, and water-use efficiency (WUE). Results indicated that N application significantly improved all metrics. The optimal N rate for yield was 180 kg N ha⁻¹ (N180), producing yields equivalent to the higher 240 kg N ha⁻¹ rate (N240). Compared to the N0 control, the N240 treatment under FS in 2022–23 increased grain yield by 25.4% and WUE by 11.9%, while under DS it increased yield by 23.6% and WUE by 11.1%. However, in the following year (2023–24), the greatest benefits under FS came from N180, which increased yield by 19.3% and WUE by 11.5% over the control. Higher N rates markedly elevated grain quality: N240 resulted in the highest steamed bread score and concentration of volatile compounds. Nitrogen application also intensified soil water use, particularly before anthesis. In 2022–23, the highest N240 reduced soil water at maturity by 16.6% (FS) and 15.9% (DS) and increased total water consumption by up to 7.8% compared to N0. Yield was strongly correlated with soil water depletion in the 0–200 cm layer during the reproductive period. While N240 optimized quality, the N180 rate combined with improved sowing methods (FS or DS) provided the best balance, drill sowing was crucial agronomic practice for enhancing nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE), achieving high yield, superior WUE, and acceptable quality. We therefore recommend an N rate of 180 kg ha⁻¹ with improved sowing as a sustainable practice for dryland wheat production on the Loess Plateau. Full article

Nitrogen is the nutrient most required by plants and plays a central role in agricultural productivity due to its involvement in essential nutrients. This study evaluated the effects of different nitrogen sources on the physiological and morphological development of yellow passion fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims) seedlings. The experiment followed a randomized block design with six treatments (water, urea, ammonium sulfate, potassium nitrate, calcium nitrate, and magnesium nitrate), six replicates per treatment, and two plants per plot. An equal amount of nitrogen was supplied to all treatments, while the urea treatment excluded the additional macronutrients present in the other fertilizers (S, K, Ca, and Mg), allowing us to assess whether the benefits were exclusively attributable to the nitrogen source. The results indicated that ammonium sulfate and calcium nitrate promoted better root system development, while ammonium sulfate also improved shoot growth and physiological characteristics. Multivariate analysis revealed that CP1 explained most of the variability between treatments, highlighting the contribution of these sources compared to the control. Overall, fertilization with ammonium sulfate produced the best results, indicating that it is a more efficient nitrogen source for seedling development. Full article

Water deficit is a major constraint limiting the growth and yield of faba bean (Vicia faba L.). A pot experiment was conducted under controlled conditions to evaluate the effect of inoculation with Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae BIHB 1148 (strain F14) and Pseudomonas alkylphenolica PF9 (strain L13) on faba bean drought resilience. Two irrigation regimes were applied: well-watered (80% of field capacity) versus water-stressed (40% of field capacity). Strain F14 was used to ensure effective biological nitrogen fixation, while strain L13 was applied in co-inoculation to evaluate its biostimulatory effects. The control plants received nitrogen in its chemical form. Results indicated that water deficit significantly (p < 0.001) reduced plant growth, nodulation, and photosynthesis-related parameters, and increased hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, which are key markers of oxidative stress. However, co-inoculation with strains F14 and L13 significantly enhanced shoot and root biomass, as well as most agro-morphological traits. It also stimulated (p < 0.05) the antioxidant activities of superoxide dismutase (3-fold), guaiacol peroxidase (12%), and catalase (104%), and increased proline content (119%), which led to lower levels of MDA (54% decrease) and H₂O₂ (55% decrease), improved membrane stability, water status, and enhanced photosynthesis. Overall, co-inoculation of faba bean with Rhizobium leguminosarum bv. viciae BIHB 1148 and Pseudomonas alkylphenolica PF9 offers a promising and sustainable approach to improve plant resilience under water deficit. Full article

Freshwater resources are on the verge of depletion due to the rapid increase in population, lifestyle changes, and especially during climate change in Iraq. Therefore, treating domestic wastewater correctly will significantly contribute to keeping the balance of water purity and its usage. To fulfil this, the Sustainable Project Appraisal Routine (SPeAR^TM) program, which leverages Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis with operational sustainability indicators, is used to compare the relative sustainability performance of the novel Modified Sequencing Batch Reactor by visualising the results of the degree of its sustainability compared to the Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor and the conventional Sequencing Batch Reactor system. Although selecting the most sustainable treatment depends on specific treatment goals, available resources, site conditions, and stakeholder preferences, this study considers the equal weighting of sustainability assessment across environmental, social, and economic indices to inform sustainable decision making. The results show that integrating both conventional treatment plants into the novel modified treatment plant demonstrates a comparatively more balanced and stable sustainability performance under the assessed operational conditions. As at a design capacity of 100 m³·day⁻¹, the MSBR achieved a higher organic and nutrient removal efficiencies relative to the conventional SBR and MBBR systems while operating at an intermediate energy demand (187.7 kWh·day⁻¹) compared with the SBR (121.7 kWh·day⁻¹) and the MBBR (211.8 kWh·day⁻¹). Thus, it can compensate for the weaknesses and combines the strengths of the sustainability indices of the two systems, which supports the Modified Sequencing Batch Reactor as a comparatively favourable option for wastewater treatment within the assessed sustainability framework. Full article

Sustainable fertilization strategies are increasingly required to enhance crop performance while reducing dependence on synthetic inaputs. In this study, the effectiveness of sea-derived organic amendments, Posidonia oceanica compost and mussel shell powder, was evaluated in Salvia officinalis (sage) cultivation. A pot experiment was conducted in Istron Kalou Xoriou (Crete), using three nitrogen rates (0, 40 and 80 kg ha⁻¹) in combination with four rates of mussel shell powder (0, 50, 100 and 200 g/pot). A total of 9 treatments were set up, each replicated 3 times, resulting in 27 pots. Growth parameters (plant height, total and leaf fresh-dry weight), nitrogen content in plant tissues, nitrogen uptake, and nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) were assessed across three harvest periods. The results indicated that both P. oceanica compost and mussel shell amendments significantly improved soil properties and plant performance. The treatment receiving 200 g/pot of mussel shell powder combined with 80 kg ha⁻¹ fertilization (PH200) consistently produced the highest values for biomass (223.99–383.58 g/plant), nitrogen plant concentration (1.967–2.117%), and nitrogen uptake (1.762–3.248 g/plant). The application of mussel shells effectively increased soil pH, thereby enhancing nutrient availability and promoting nitrogen assimilation. Furthermore, NUE values showed a progressive increase with rising amendments rates. Overall, sea-derived organic amendments demonstrated strong potential as sustainable fertilization materials, contributing to sage productivity improvement while supporting circular management of coastal waste resources. Full article

Burgeoning air pollution is a pressing public health concern. However, due to the scarcity and sparsity of ground-based monitoring, its impact remains uncertain. This work demonstrates how satellite-derived NO₂ observations can identify persistent pollution hotspots and seasonal patterns in a data-scarce urban region. This work leveraged TROPOMI satellite data and Google Earth Engine to evaluate tropospheric NO₂ hotspot patterns in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana from 2019 to 2023. TROPOMI data revealed persistent NO₂ hotspots in urban and industrial areas, with overall peak concentrations reaching up to 3.3 × 10¹⁵ mol cm⁻². Seasonal analysis showed elevated NO₂ levels during the dry season, with a mean concentration of 2.3 × 10¹⁵ mol cm⁻², while lower levels were observed during the rainy season. Increased emissions and reduced dispersion influence this pattern due to stable atmospheric conditions. Google Earth imagery confirmed that the highest NO₂ concentrations were associated with the Heavy Industrial Area, highlighting the presence of extensive industrial facilities such as refineries, factories, and quarries. This integration of satellite observations with high-resolution geospatial tools provides a robust methodology for NO₂ source attribution, emphasizing the need for targeted emission control measures in industrial zones to mitigate air pollution and associated health risks. Full article

The identification of forage species with Biological Nitrification Inhibition (BNI) capacity is a promising strategy to inhibit soil nitrification and reduce nitrogen (N) losses. This study evaluated the BNI capacity of five Urochloa genotypes (Camello, Cayman, Marandú, Mulato II, Talismán) and their impact on biomass yield and nitrogen uptake (NU). The BNI capacity, biomass yield, N content, and NU of five Urochloa genotypes were compared. Significant differences in BNI capacity were observed between genotypes (p < 0.009). Cayman and Marandú presented the highest BNI values (87.41 and 87.21%, respectively), higher than those of Mulato II, Talismán and Camello (78.20, 81.77 and 82.63%, respectively). Regarding biomass yield, Cayman and Marandú stood out with 3093.5 and 2911.7 kg DM ha⁻¹, respectively. Talismán and Camello showed higher N concentrations in the biomass (1.64 and 1.63%). In terms of NU, Cayman recorded the highest efficiency (47.32 kg N ha⁻¹), surpassing Marandú, Camello, Talisman and Mulato II (42.83, 42.77, 41.53 and 37.23 kg N ha⁻¹, respectively; p < 0.0001). BNI capacity influences biomass yield and nitrogen uptake. The Cayman genotype is positioned as a promising forage alternative for the development of more efficient and sustainable livestock systems by promoting more efficient N use. Full article

N is the most crucial nutrient for plant growth and yield. Soybeans require a large amount of N for growth and seed production because of their high protein content. Soybean plants fix N₂ by root nodules in association with soil bacteria, rhizobia, but both the fixed N and the N absorbed from roots are essential to obtain a maximum seed yield. However, excess or inappropriate N fertilizer application represses N₂ fixation and reduces seed yield. A basal deep placement of lime nitrogen promoted soybean seed yield without inhibiting N₂ fixation activity in Japan. This study aimed to evaluate whether this technology can be applied in the Far East of Russia. The effects of deep placement of lime N with a wide row (75 cm) on the growth and seed yield of four Russian varieties were investigated. Without N fertilization, the average seed yield in wide rows was 2.77 t/ha, which was not significantly different from that in narrow rows (2.39 t/ha). Deep placement of lime nitrogen with wide rows increased total mechanical seed yield by 38%, 53%, 17%, and 6% in Primorskaya 4, 13, 81, and 86, respectively. The effect of basal urea application in narrow rows varied among cultivars. Soil analysis and the N composition in xylem sap indicated that the Russian field is richer in soil N than that in Niigata, and the contribution of N derived from N₂ fixation was lower than that in Niigata. The effects of row spacing and N fertilization on seed yield varied by variety; therefore, it is necessary to evaluate each variety to determine the optimal row spacing and N fertilization. The field experiment indicated that the deep placement of lime N promoted seed yield of Russian cultivars. This technique may be applied in soybean cultivation in a large field if the appropriate machine is available. Full article

Understanding how supplemental nitrogen (N) interacts with biological N₂ fixation (BNF) in modern soybean cultivars is essential for designing fertilization strategies that avoid unnecessary N inputs. We investigated N partitioning among soil, fertilizer and symbiotic sources in soybean grown in a greenhouse pot experiment on a tropical Oxisol. Plants were inoculated with Bradyrhizobium and subjected to four N managements: no external N, soil-applied ¹⁵N-urea (20 kg N ha⁻¹), foliar ¹⁵N-urea (2 kg N ha⁻¹, 0.7% w/v), and the combination of soil + foliar N. Using ¹⁵N isotope dilution, we quantified N derived from the atmosphere (NDFA), fertilizer (NDFF) and soil (NDFS) at organ and whole-plant scales, and related these fractions to nodulation, nitrogenase activity and yield. In the absence of external N, NDFA exceeded 97% in all organs, indicating a strong reliance on BNF and efficient internal N remobilization during grain filling, accompanied by higher leaf nitrate reductase activity. Soil and soil + foliar N markedly increased NDFF and NDFS while suppressing nodulation (particularly at V4) and reducing nitrogenase activity, yet they did not improve grain yield or vegetative biomass. Foliar N alone had only modest effects on N partitioning and did not enhance yield. Under these tropical soil conditions, symbiotic fixation and internal N remobilization were sufficient to meet grain N demand, highlighting the limited agronomic benefit and potential ecological cost of supplemental N during reproductive growth. Full article