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Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 25 December 2024 | Viewed by 16693

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Xiaoquan Cheng

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Guest Editor

School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
Interests: damage tolerance analysis and design of composite structures; repair of composite structures; thermal protection design of composite structures; mechanics of composites

Dr. Wenjun Huang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

AVIC China Helicopter Design and Research Institute, Jingdezhen 333001, China
Interests: helicopter dynamics; dynamic performances analysis of helicopter rotor systems; design of composite rotor blades; damage tolerance design of composite rotor blades

Dr. Qian Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

School of Mechanical Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, China
Interests: design and manufacturing of filament wound composite structures; design and manufacturing of composite pressure vessels; development of CAM/CAE software for filament winding structure

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Polymer-based composites have been widely used in aircraft, missiles, automobiles, buildings, and other applications. Studying the damage and failure mechanisms, as well as the destructive performance of polymer-based composites and their structures, can improve the mechanical properties of composite structures, as well as reduce structural weight and total life-cycle costs. Through innovative design and process improvement of composite structures, structural efficiency can be improved and costs can be effectively reduced. Topics of interest for this Special Issue include, but are not limited to, the following:

Damage and failure mechanism;
Structure performances;
Properties of polymer-based composites under different environments;
Performance of repaired composite structures;
Properties of hybrid composites;
Mechanical performance of composites with different process;
Performance of composite joints.

Prof. Dr. Xiaoquan Cheng
Dr. Wenjun Huang
Dr. Qian Zhang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

damage analysis
failure analysis
polymers
polymer-based composites
composite structures
fatigue properties
static performance
repair
hybrid composites

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

16 pages, 5606 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Effects of Liquid Rubber and Thermoplastic Particles for Toughening Epoxy Resin

by Zhaodi Wang, Yuanchang Lai, Peiwen Xu, Junchi Ma, Yahong Xu and Xin Yang

Polymers 2024, 16(19), 2775; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16192775 - 30 Sep 2024

Viewed by 670

Abstract

This study aims to investigate the toughening effects of rubber and thermoplastic particles on epoxy resin (EP), and to understand the mechanism underlying their synergistic effect. For this purpose, three EP systems were prepared using diglycidyl ether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA) epoxy resin (E-54) and 4,4-Diamino diphenyl methane (Ag-80) as matrix resin, 4,4-diaminodiphenyl sulfone (DDS) as a curing agent, and phenolphthalein poly (aryl ether ketone) particles (PEK-C) and carboxyl-terminated butyl liquid rubber (CTBN) as toughening agents. These systems are classified as an EP/PEK-C toughening system, EP/CTBN toughening system, and EP/PEK-C/CTBN synergistic toughening system. The curing behavior, thermal properties, mechanical properties, and phase structure of the synergistic-toughened EP systems were comprehensively investigated. The results showed that PEK-C did not react with EP, while CTBN reacted with EP to form a flexible block polymer. The impact toughness of EP toughened by PEK-C/CTBN was improved obviously without significantly increasing viscosity or decreasing thermal stability, flexural strength, and modulus, and the synergistic toughening effect was significantly higher than that of the single toughening system. The notable improvement in toughness is believed to be due to the synergistic energy dissipation effect of PEK-C/CTBN. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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17 pages, 9630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Fatigue Damage Monitoring of Single-Lap Composite Adhesive Joint Using Conductivity

by Chow-Shing Shin and Shun-Hsuan Huang

Polymers 2024, 16(16), 2374; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162374 - 22 Aug 2024

Viewed by 3645

Abstract

The widely used adhesive joining technique suffers from the drawback of being unable to be dismantled to examine for degradation. To counteract this weakness, several structural health monitoring (SHM) methods have been proposed to reveal the joint integrity status. Among these, doping the adhesive with carbon nanotubes to make the joint conductive and monitoring its electrical resistance change is a promising candidate as it is of relatively low cost and easy to implement. In this work, resistance change to monitor fatigue debonding of composite single-lap adhesive joints has been attempted. The debonded area, recorded with a liquid penetrant technique, related linearly to the fatigue life expended. However, it correlates with the resistance change in two different trends. Scanning electron microscopy on the fracture surface reveals that the two trends are associated with distinct failure micromechanisms. Implications of these observations on the practical use of the resistance change for SHM are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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21 pages, 8827 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Investigation of the Energy-Absorption Characteristics of Thin-Walled Polymer Composite C-Channels: Experiment and Stacked Shell Simulation

by Xiaomin Zhang, Haolei Mou, Shanshan Song and Zhenyu Feng

Polymers 2024, 16(15), 2099; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16152099 - 23 Jul 2024

Viewed by 706

Abstract

Polymer composite materials are increasingly used in civil aircraft structures. The failure mode and energy-absorption characteristics of polymer composite structures have garnered significant attention from academia and industry. For thin-walled polymer composite C-channels with layups of [0/90]_3s, [45/-45]_3s, and [45/90/-45/0]₃, low-speed axial compression tests were performed to investigate the failure modes, failure mechanisms, and energy-absorbing characteristics. After parametric studies using [0] and [90] single-element models, stacked shell models of thin-walled composite C-channels were established using the Lavadèze single-layer damage constitutive model, Puck 2000, and Yamada Sun failure criteria. The results show that these thin-walled composite C-channels exhibit a stable progressive crushing process with a local buckling failure mode, encompassing local buckling, fiber break-age, matrix cracks, delamination, and corner cracking. The stacked shell model demonstrates reasonable agreement with the progressive crushing process of thin-walled composites, accurately capturing interlayer matrix failure and interface delamination cracking behavior. A comparison of the specific energy absorption (SEA) and mean crushing force (F_mean) between the simulation and test results yields a difference of less than 6%, indicating a strong correlation between the simulation results and the experimental energy-absorbing characteristics. It also shows that a deep understanding of the parameters is helpful for accurate numerical modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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15 pages, 5002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bio-Sourced, High-Performance Carbon Fiber Reinforced Itaconic Acid-Based Epoxy Composites with High Hygrothermal Stability and Durability

by Kaixuan Xiao, Yuan Fang, Zhaodi Wang, Nannan Ni, Ziqian Liu, Soochan Kim, Zongfu An, Zhiyi Lyu, Yahong Xu and Xin Yang

Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1649; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121649 - 11 Jun 2024

Viewed by 1021

Abstract

Thermosetting polymers and composites are a class of high-performance materials with significant industrial applications. However, the widespread use of thermosets and their composites generates large quantities of waste and leads to serious economic and environmental problems, there is a critical need in the elaboration of sustainable composite materials. Here, we propose a method to prepare sustainable carbon fiber reinforced composites with different degrees of greenness by blending environmentally friendly EIA with DGEBA in different ratios, and the properties compared with a well-known commercial petroleum-based epoxy resin. The prepared carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites with different degrees of greenness had excellent dimensional stability under extreme hygrothermal aging. After aging, the green CFRP composite T700/EIA-30 has higher strength and performance retention than that of petroleum-based CFRP composites. The higher hygrothermal stability and durability of EIA-based epoxy resins as compared with BPA-based epoxy resins demonstrated significant evidence to design and develop a novel bio-based epoxy resin with high performance to substitute the petroleum-based epoxy resin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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16 pages, 11256 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interlaminar Shear Strength Change and Storage Life Prediction of Carbon Fiber/Epoxy Composites with Hygrothermal Accelerated Aging

by Jinjuan Fan, Qin Zhang, Xinwen Chen and Yuhuai He

Polymers 2024, 16(8), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16081109 - 16 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1081

Abstract

In order to investigate the durability of fiber-reinforced polymer composites in hygrothermal environments, hygrothermal accelerate aging tests, for 360 days at 70 °C, RH70%; 70 °C, RH85%; 85 °C, RH70%; and 85 °C, RH85% and natural storage for 2 years in Guangzhou, China, were carried out for composite laminates. Then, the moisture absorption and interlaminar shear strength were measured. The hygrothermal damage mechanism of the composite was studied by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FSEM). A dual stress storage life prediction model and the equivalent relationship between natural storage and hygrothermal acceleration were established. The results show that the order of moisture absorption rates, moisture absorption contents, and the severity effect order on the interlaminar shear strength is RH85%; 85 °C > 70 °C; RH85% > 85 °C; RH70% > 70 °C; and RH70%. The time to achieve an effective moisture absorption balance is opposite to this. The moisture absorption rate meets Fick’s law before the effective moisture absorption balance, and then shows a linear trend. The interlayer shear strength still decreases exponentially with aging, which is mainly caused by the resin plasticization and interface weakening. Hygrothermal accelerated aging for 13.4831 days at 85 °C; RH85% is equivalent to that for one-year actual storage in Guangzhou. According to the failure criterion of shear strength decreasing to 77%, the storage life of T700/epoxy in Guangzhou is 14.4661 years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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13 pages, 5188 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Carbon Black on Mechanical Properties and Oil Resistance of Liquid Silicone Rubber

by Beom-Joo Lee and Hyeong-Min Yoo

Polymers 2024, 16(7), 933; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16070933 - 28 Mar 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1492

Abstract

Liquid silicone rubber (LSR) garners attention across a diverse range of industries owing to its commendable fluidity and heat resistance. Nonetheless, its mechanical strength and oil resistance fall short compared to other rubbers, necessitating enhancement through the incorporation of a suitable filler. This research focuses on reinforcing LSR using carbon black (CB) particles as a filler, evaluating the mechanical properties and oil resistance of neat LSR, and LSR containing up to 3 wt% of CB filler. CB was added in powder form to investigate its effect on LSR. When LSR was impregnated with oil, the deterioration of rubber was noticeably observed under high-temperature conditions compared to room-temperature conditions. Consequently, the mechanical properties and oil resistance, excluding the permanent compression reduction rate, tended to increase as the filling content of CB increased compared to the unfilled state. Notably, in the specimen with 2 wt% CB filler, the tensile modulus increased significantly by 48% and the deterioration rate was reduced by about 50% under accelerated deterioration conditions. Additionally, the swelling rate in oil decreased by around 14%. This validates a notable improvement in both mechanical properties and oil resistance. Based on the identified mechanism for properties enhancement in this study, CB/LSR composite is expected to have a wide range of applications in fields such as gaskets, oil seals, and flexible sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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22 pages, 4364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Online and Ex Situ Damage Characterization Techniques for Fiber-Reinforced Composites under Ultrasonic Cyclic Three-Point Bending

by Aravind Premanand, Mario Prescher, Michael Rienks, Lutz Kirste and Frank Balle

Polymers 2024, 16(6), 803; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060803 - 13 Mar 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1438

Abstract

With ultrasonic fatigue testing (UFT), it is possible to investigate the damage initiation and accumulation from the weakest link of the composite material in the very high cycle fatigue (VHCF) regime in a shorter time frame than conventional fatigue testing. However, the thermal influence on the mechanical fatigue of composites and the scatter in fatigue data for composites under ultrasonic cyclic three-point bending loading still need to be investigated. In this study, we conducted interrupted constant-amplitude fatigue experiments on a carbon-fiber satin-fabric reinforced in poly-ether-ketone-ketone (CF-PEKK) composite material. These experiments were carried out using a UFT system, which operates at a cyclic frequency of 20 kHz with a pulse–pause sequence. Various parameters, such as the CF-PEKK specimen’s surface temperature, acoustic activity, and the ultrasonic generator’s input resonance parameters, were measured during cyclic loading. During experiment interruption, stiffness measurement and volumetric damage characterization in the CF-PEKK specimens using 3D X-ray microscopy (XRM) were performed. The locations of damage initiation and accumulation and their influence on the changes in in situ parameters were characterized. Under fixed loading conditions, damage accumulation occurred at different locations, leading to scattering in fatigue life data. Further, the damage population decreased from the surface to the bulk of the composite material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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18 pages, 7831 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Behaviors of Polymer-Based Composite Reinforcements within High-Field Pulsed Magnets

by Siyuan Chen, Tao Peng, Xiaotao Han, Quanliang Cao, Houxiu Xiao and Liang Li

Polymers 2024, 16(5), 722; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16050722 - 6 Mar 2024

Viewed by 963

Abstract

The development of pulsed magnets capable of generating magnetic fields exceeding 100 Tesla has been recognized as a crucial pursuit for advancing the scientific research on high magnetic fields. However, the operation of magnets at ultra-high magnetic fields often leads to accidental failures at their ends, necessitating a comprehensive exploration of the underlying mechanisms. To this end, this study investigates, for the first time, the mechanical behaviors of Zylon fiber-reinforced polymers (ZFRPs) within pulsed magnets from a composite perspective. The study begins with mechanical testing of ZFRPs, followed by the development of its constitutive model, which incorporates the plasticity and progressive damage. Subsequently, in-depth analyses are performed on a 95-T double-coil prototype that experienced a failure. The outcomes reveal a notable reduction of approximately 45% in both the radial and axial stiffness of ZFRPs, and the primary reason for the failure is traced to the damage incurred by the end ZFRPs of the inner magnet. The projected failure field closely aligns with the experiment. Additionally, two other magnet systems, achieving 90.6 T and 94.88 T, are analyzed. Finally, the discussion delves into the impact of transverse mechanical strength of the reinforcement and axial Lorentz forces on the structural performance of magnets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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19 pages, 12591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tensile and Compressive Properties of Woven Fabric Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates Containing Three-Dimensional Microvascular Channels

by Ziqian An, Xiaoquan Cheng, Dafang Zhao, Yihao Ma, Xin Guo and Yujia Cheng

Polymers 2024, 16(5), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16050665 - 29 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1816

Abstract

Microvascular self-healing composite materials have significant potential for application and their mechanical properties need in-depth investigation. In this paper, the tensile and compressive properties of woven fabric carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates containing three-dimensional microvascular channels were investigated experimentally. Several detailed finite element (FE) models were established to simulate the mechanical behavior of the laminate and the effectiveness of different models was examined. The damage propagation process of the microvascular laminates and the influence of microvascular parameters were studied by the validated models. The results show that microvascular channels arranged along the thickness direction (z-direction) of the laminates are critical locations under the loads. The channels have minimal effect on the stiffness of the laminates but cause a certain reduction in strength, which varies approximately linearly with the z-direction channel diameter within its common design range of 0.1~1 mm. It is necessary to consider the resin-rich region formed around microvascular channels in the warp and weft fiber yarns of the woven fabric composite when establishing the FE model. The layers in the model should be assigned with equivalent unidirectional ply material in order to calculate the mechanical properties of laminates correctly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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20 pages, 29367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance and Damage Study of Composite Rotor Blades under Impact

by Guorui Yu, Xiaobin Li and Wenjun Huang

Polymers 2024, 16(5), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16050623 - 25 Feb 2024

Viewed by 1471

Abstract

A military helicopter is easily attacked by bullets in a battlefield environment. The composite blade is the main lifting surface and control surface of the helicopter. Its ballistic performance directly determines the vulnerability and survivability of the helicopter in the battlefield environment. To study the ballistic performance of the composite helicopter blade, the damage characteristics of the impacted composite rotor blade are obtained by experiments. A numerical simulation model is established by applying Abaqus software to predict the blade ballistic damage. The three-dimensional progressive damage failure model is used to analyze the ballistic damage under the experimental conditions. The effectiveness and accuracy of the numerical simulation model are verified through a comparison with the experimental results. The ballistic damage of composite blades under three experimental conditions was investigated. The results show that the ballistic damage type of composite blade mainly includes delamination, fiber breakage, and foam collapse. The damage to the composite material at the position of bullet incidence is mainly local shear fracture, while the damage to the composite material at the exit position is mainly fiber tensile fracture. The ballistic damage size of the composite blade is closely related to the ballistic position, incident angle, and structure characteristics along the ballistic path. The larger the incident angle, the smaller the ballistic damage size of the blade. The greater the structural stiffness of the structure near the exit, the greater the damage size of the exit. The numerical simulation model presented in this paper can provide a reference for research on the ballistic performance of composite helicopter blades. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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16 pages, 10209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sand Erosion Resistance and Failure Mechanism of Polyurethane Film on Helicopter Rotor Blades

by Linfeng Zheng, Jinjuan Fan, Qing Gong, Wei Sun and Xinghui Jia

Polymers 2023, 15(22), 4386; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15224386 - 11 Nov 2023

Viewed by 1526

Abstract

Polyurethane is widely used on the surface of composite materials for rotor blades as sand erosion protection materials. The failure mechanism investigation of polyurethane film under service conditions is useful for developing the optimal polyurethane film for rotor blades. In this article, the sand erosion test parameters were ascertained according to the service environment of the polyurethane film. The sand erosion resistance and failure mechanism of polyurethane film at different impact angles were analyzed by an infrared thermometer, a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR), a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), and a laser confocal microscope (CLSM). The results show that the direct measurement method of volume loss can better characterize the sand erosion resistance of the polyurethane film compared to traditional mass loss methods, which avoids the influence of sand particles embedded in the polyurethane film. The sand erosion resistance of polyurethane film at low-angle impact is much lower than that at high-angle impact. At an impact rate of 220 m/s, the volume loss after sand erosion for 15 min at the impact angle of 30° is 57.8 mm³, while that at the impact angle of 90° is only 2.6 mm³. The volume loss prediction equation was established according to the experimental data. During low-angle erosion, the polyurethane film damage is mainly caused by sand cutting, which leads to wrinkling and accumulation of surface materials, a rapid increase in roughness, and the generation of long cracks. The linking of developing cracks would lead to large-scale shedding of polyurethane film. During high-angle erosion, the polyurethane film damage is mainly caused by impact. The connection of small cracks caused by impact leads to the shedding of small pieces of polyurethane, while the change in the roughness of the film is not as significant as that during low-angle erosion. The disordered arrangement of the soft and hard blocks becomes locally ordered under the action of impact and cutting loads. Then, the disordered state is restored after the erosion test finishes. The erosion of sand particles leads to an increase in the temperature of the erosion zone of the polyurethane film, and the maximum temperature rise is 6 °C, which does not result in a significant change in the molecular structure of the polyurethane film. The erosion failure mechanism is cracking caused by sand cutting and impact. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Damage and Failure Analysis of Polymer-Based Composites)

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