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Processes
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Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis
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Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Process Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 July 2025 | Viewed by 11258

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Agnieszka Zgoła-Grześkowiak

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Guest Editor
Institute of Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, PL-60 965 Poznan, Poland
Interests: sample preparation; microextraction; endocrine disrupting compounds; environmental chemistry; food analysis; biodegradation; LC-MS/MS
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Magdalena Ligor

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Environmental Chemistry and Ecoanalytics, Faculty of Chemistry, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Gagarin 7, PL-87 100 Torun, Poland
Interests: chromatographic techniques (GC/MS, LC/MS, TLC-MS); sample preparation methods (SPME, SPE, LLE); analysis of plant materials; food and water; determination of VOCs; biomedical chemistry; trace analysis
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Tomasz Grześkowiak

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland
Interests: sample preparation; microextraction; endocrine disrupting compounds; environmental chemistry; biodegradation; LC-MS/MS; GC
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Food and the means of obtaining it have always been the most important goal in human life, as it is food that ensures the maintenance of our basic life processes. But today, it is important not only to obtain food but also to safeguard its quality and processing, as these affect our health.

Separation and extraction techniques are crucial in both food processing and analysis. Many simple processes are used in food production, for example, filtration, extraction, centrifugation, sedimentation, etc. More advanced techniques are often used in sample processing for analytical purposes, including solid-phase extraction, solid-phase microextraction, dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction, and many others. Developing and optimizing separation and extraction methods are essential for achieving good food quality and reducing production costs, as well as in analytical chemistry to increase laboratory productivity and improve selectivity, precision, and detection. It is also important to develop methods with low environmental impact. Proper control and qualitative and quantitative analysis of food products are critical for food quality and safety, and modern analytical methods allow both the appropriate isolation of food contaminants and their determination.

This Special Issue on “Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis” seeks high-quality works focusing on the latest advances in food processing and analysis. Topics include but are not limited to the following:

  • Improved food processing methods characterized by low cost and negligible environmental impact;
  • The search for valuable food constituents like antioxidants, etc.;
  • The development of green separation and extraction methods.

Prof. Dr. Agnieszka Zgoła-Grześkowiak
Dr. Magdalena Ligor
Dr. Tomasz Grześkowiak
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • separation
  • extraction
  • food processing
  • food quality
  • new sorbents
  • green solvents
  • materials and technologies
  • sample preparation

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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15 pages, 1868 KiB  
Article
New Insights into Red and White Quinoa Protein Isolates: Nutritional, Functional, Thermal Properties
by Khalid A. Alsaleem, Rofida F. Moftah and Mennatallah M. A. El-Geddawy
Processes 2024, 12(12), 2822; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12122822 - 9 Dec 2024
Viewed by 525
Abstract
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds, renowned for their nutritional richness and balanced amino acid profile, offer promising potential as food ingredients. This study focused on extracting and characterizing the protein isolates from red and white quinoa varieties to evaluate their physicochemical and [...] Read more.
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds, renowned for their nutritional richness and balanced amino acid profile, offer promising potential as food ingredients. This study focused on extracting and characterizing the protein isolates from red and white quinoa varieties to evaluate their physicochemical and functional properties. Protein isolation involved alkaline solubilization and isoelectric precipitation, followed by characterization through amino acid analysis, phenolic profiling, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), zeta potential measurement, particle size distribution analysis, Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and rheological studies. The results showed that both the red and white quinoa protein isolates exhibited high protein content and essential amino acids, with notable differences in their amino acid compositions. The phenolic and flavonoid content varied between the red and white quinoa seeds, highlighting their potential antioxidant properties. SEM revealed distinct microstructural differences between the red and white quinoa protein isolates. Zeta potential measurements indicated the negative surface charges, influencing the stability in the solution. A particle size distribution analysis showed the monomodal distributions with minor variations in the mean particle size. The DSC profiles demonstrated multiple denaturation peaks, reflecting the complex protein compositions. Rheological studies indicated diverse gelation behaviors and mechanical properties. Overall, this comprehensive characterization underscores the potential of quinoa protein isolates as functional food ingredients with diverse applications in the food industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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21 pages, 2253 KiB  
Article
Extraction of Soybean Oil with Pressurized Ethanol: Prospects for a New Processing Approach with an Analysis of the Physical Properties of Crude Oil and Implementation Costs through Scale-Up in an Intermittent Process
by Paulo Rodolfo Ramos, Larissa da Cunha Rodrigues, Giovani Leone Zabot and Alessandra Lopes de Oliveira
Processes 2024, 12(10), 2224; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12102224 - 12 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1008
Abstract
New environmentally friendly methods for extracting vegetable oils are in development, with a focus on pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) in an intermittent process. Ethanol, a renewable and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) solvent, is gaining prominence in this process. It is crucial for [...] Read more.
New environmentally friendly methods for extracting vegetable oils are in development, with a focus on pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) in an intermittent process. Ethanol, a renewable and generally recognized as safe (GRAS) solvent, is gaining prominence in this process. It is crucial for these methods to maintain the physicochemical characteristics of the extracted oils and be economically viable on a large scale. Using SuperPro Design software v 8.5, a simulation of PLE scaled up to industrial levels was conducted. Measurements of oils extracted with pressurized hexane and ethanol showed minimal density variations, with slightly higher viscosity for ethanol-extracted oil. Accelerated oxidative degradation revealed a longer induction period for hexane-extracted oil, indicating that ethanol-extracted oil degrades more easily. The antioxidant activity of the oil extracted with hexane was lower than that with ethanol. In the differential scanning calorimetry analysis, the oils extracted with hexane and ethanol presented onset melting point temperatures of −43.2 and −36.1 °C, respectively. The economic assessment considered 16 scenarios, showing a return on investment ranging from 9.0 to 133.5% in the first year and payback times from 0.7 to 11.1 years. Scenario 8, involving two 5000 L extractors, ethanol recycling, and an annual production of 3,325,300 L of soybean oil at USD 1.25/L, demonstrated the best return on investment (133.5%) in less than one year. Overall, this study suggests that industrial-scale soybean oil extraction via PLE in an intermittent process can be more cost-effective than conventional methods, making implementation feasible. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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19 pages, 1679 KiB  
Article
Recovery of Fennel Non-Polar Bioactives via Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction
by Nina Marčac Duraković, Ena Cegledi, Ivona Elez Garofulić, Sandra Balbino, Sandra Pedisić, Stela Jokić, Verica Dragović-Uzelac and Maja Repajić
Processes 2024, 12(8), 1764; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081764 - 21 Aug 2024
Viewed by 635
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the optimal pressure and temperature for the maximum extraction yield and recovery of lipophilic bioactive compounds (BACs) during the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SCO2) of fennel seeds. For this purpose, the SCO2 pressure (78.6–361.4 bar) [...] Read more.
This study aimed to determine the optimal pressure and temperature for the maximum extraction yield and recovery of lipophilic bioactive compounds (BACs) during the supercritical carbon dioxide extraction (SCO2) of fennel seeds. For this purpose, the SCO2 pressure (78.6–361.4 bar) and temperature (35.9–64.1 °C) were varied and optimized, and all of the extracts obtained were analyzed for the volatiles, fatty acids, sterols, tocochromanols and carotenoids. The results showed that the maximum extract yield and content of all of the compounds analyzed favored a higher pressure (320 bar) and lower temperature (40 °C), except for the volatiles, which were the highest at 120 bar and 42 °C. However, the optimal SCO2 conditions for obtaining the highest overall total lipophilic fraction were 320 bar and 40 °C, respectively. The fennel SCO2 extract obtained under these conditions contained 18 volatiles (trans-anethole as the major component), 12 fatty acids (oleic and petroselinic as the major compounds), 12 sterols (β-sitosterol and stigmasterol as the major compounds), two pentacyclic triterpenoids (α-, β-amyrin), one tocopherol (α-tocopherol), two tocotrienols (γ-, δ-tocotrienol) as well as two carotenoids (lutein and β-carotene). The SCO2 proved to be very efficient for the isolation of various lipophilic BACs from fennel, and the results of this study may be of interest to academia and industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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14 pages, 3435 KiB  
Article
Acmella oleracea Metabolite Extraction Using Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents
by Claudia Maxim, Alexandra Cristina Blaga, Ramona-Elena Tataru-Farmus and Daniela Suteu
Processes 2024, 12(8), 1686; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081686 - 12 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1236
Abstract
For plant metabolite extraction, natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) have many benefits over conventional solvents and ionic liquids. These advantages include high solubility and extraction ability, a low melting point (<100 °C), low toxicity, environmental friendliness, recyclability, and better biodegradability. This study analyses [...] Read more.
For plant metabolite extraction, natural deep eutectic solvents (NADESs) have many benefits over conventional solvents and ionic liquids. These advantages include high solubility and extraction ability, a low melting point (<100 °C), low toxicity, environmental friendliness, recyclability, and better biodegradability. This study analyses a natural deep eutectic solvent for Acmella oleracea (A. oleracea) metabolite extraction, considering the following process parameters: temperature, component ratio in the eutectic solvent, water addition, solid/liquid ratio, and extraction duration. NADESs were synthesised using a simple heating method, and the synthesis of the NADESs was verified by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In terms of total polyphenol content (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC), the betaine/propanediol ratio in a NADES of 1:3 and S/L = 1:5 yielded the highest efficiency. A value of 8.37 mg GAE/mL was obtained for TPC by ultrasound-assisted extraction with 40% water addition, 25 °C extraction temperature, and 60 min contact time. The best result in terms of TFC was 14.50 mg QE/mL obtained through ultrasound-assisted extraction with 0% water added, 25 °C extraction temperature, and 60 min contact time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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18 pages, 2311 KiB  
Article
Impact of Spray Drying on the Properties of Grape Pomace Extract Powder
by Betina Louise Angioletti Decker, Emilio de Castro Miguel, Thatyane Vidal Fonteles, Fabiano A. N. Fernandes and Sueli Rodrigues
Processes 2024, 12(7), 1390; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12071390 - 3 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1264
Abstract
Incorporating anthocyanins, valuable natural pigments, into a powder can improve their stability, but exposure to high temperatures during processing can cause them to degrade. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the inlet air temperature during spray drying affects the physical [...] Read more.
Incorporating anthocyanins, valuable natural pigments, into a powder can improve their stability, but exposure to high temperatures during processing can cause them to degrade. The purpose of this study was to investigate how the inlet air temperature during spray drying affects the physical and chemical characteristics as well as the flowability of a grape pomace anthocyanin powder obtained through ultrasound-assisted extraction using acidified water as the solvent. An anthocyanin solution containing 13% (w/v) maltodextrin was subjected to spray drying at temperatures ranging from 120 to 170 °C. Tukey’s test was applied to compare the means of the samples. The samples dried at temperatures between 130 and 170 °C were adequate, with a moisture content < 5% and a water activity < 0.3, indicating that the powder was stable. The highest anthocyanin retention (91.94 ± 1.59%) and process yield (50.00 ± 3.06%) were achieved at 140 °C, while higher temperatures resulted in anthocyanin degradation. Furthermore, the powder exhibited poor flowability, indicating cohesive behavior (Hausner ratio > 42.29% and Carr index > 1.73), which is an industrial parameter rarely considered in spray-drying studies. The acidification process was found to promote high anthocyanin retention following high-temperature processing. However, powders obtained from food matrices with low pH and high sugar content may exhibit increased cohesion due to interaction forces. These findings highlight the potential of utilizing grape pomace and green solvents to produce bioactive-rich powders for industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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19 pages, 3793 KiB  
Article
Kinetics of Vegetable Oils (Rice Bran, Sunflower Seed, and Soybean) Extracted by Pressurized Liquid Extraction in Intermittent Process
by Paulo Rodolfo Ramos, Joyce Sponchiado, João Victor Febrônio Echenique, Gustavo César Dacanal and Alessandra Lopes de Oliveira
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1107; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061107 - 28 May 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1025
Abstract
The research focuses on optimizing vegetable oil production processes for human consumption, emphasizing green and efficient extraction methods using renewable solvents with minimal toxic residues. Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), especially with ethanol, is studied for its efficiency and low solvent usage in intermittent [...] Read more.
The research focuses on optimizing vegetable oil production processes for human consumption, emphasizing green and efficient extraction methods using renewable solvents with minimal toxic residues. Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), especially with ethanol, is studied for its efficiency and low solvent usage in intermittent processes. By evaluating extraction parameters and kinetics, the study aims to determine optimal conditions for higher extraction rates and yields, providing insights into production costs and other factors. Specifically, the research examines the behavior of extraction kinetics for vegetable oils like rice bran, sunflower seeds, and rolled soybeans. It also seeks to determine mass diffusivity in semi-continuous processes and to model PLE in intermittent processes using Fick’s Law and Mathematica Wolfram Software v11.2. The effective diffusivity (Deff) for rice bran oil in pressurized ethanol varied between 13.09 and 15.70 × 10−12 m2/s, and the Deff value of sunflower seed oil was between 8.10 and 12.60 × 10−12 m2/s. For rolled soybean oil, the Deff value ranged from 17.25 to 31.29 × 10−12 m2/s. The mass diffusivity values of vegetable oils in pressurized ethanol remained within the same order of magnitude. The mass diffusivity for PLE in an intermittent process presented values of 5.97 × 10−12 m2/s for rice bran oil with 3 extraction cycles. The Deff value for sunflower seed oil in pressurized ethanol was 1.38 × 10−12 m2/s, with 4 cycles, and for rolled soybeans, the Deff value was 1.77 × 10−12 m2/s in 3 cycles. The Deff value found in the intermittent extraction process was lower than that in the semi-continuous process. The total solvent renewal in the semi-continuous extraction process significantly impacted the diffusivity values for all extracted oils, as this process utilizes much more solvent compared to the intermittent process for all matrices studied. Various factors, including geometry, average particle diameter, extraction temperature, and rinse solvent volume, can affect the differences in curve behavior between the semi-continuous and intermittent processes. Despite these factors, the intermittent process is considered more viable for implementation due to its favorable economic and environmental characteristics, primarily because it requires a much smaller amount of solvent. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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20 pages, 4199 KiB  
Article
Production of Mannooligosaccharides from Açaí Seed by Immobilized β-Mannanase
by Sarha Lucia Murillo-Franco, Juan David Galvis-Nieto and Carlos E. Orrego
Processes 2024, 12(5), 847; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12050847 - 23 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1152
Abstract
In this work, an enzyme cocktail with β-mannanase as the main activity was immobilized on epoxy resin foams filled with fibers from annatto capsules. The catalytic system was characterized by SEM, FTIR, and a mechanical crush resistance test. The behavior of the pH [...] Read more.
In this work, an enzyme cocktail with β-mannanase as the main activity was immobilized on epoxy resin foams filled with fibers from annatto capsules. The catalytic system was characterized by SEM, FTIR, and a mechanical crush resistance test. The behavior of the pH and temperature for the hydrolysis of the locust bean gum were also studied. With the same substrate and with respect to the free enzyme, the immobilized enzyme showed an activity retention of 79.61%. Its operational stability in ten reuse cycles did not show any statistically significant loss of activity. This catalytic system was used to study the preferential release of MOS of two to five degrees of polymerization from mannan present in dried and ground açaí seeds, which were not subjected to any other pretreatment. Using an experimental response surface design, the predicted quadratic models for the M2–M5 MOS content were obtained and they fit well with the experimental data, predicting a production range between 0.435 and 20 g/L of MOS (M2–M5). In addition, the production reached about 12 g/L under the optimized conditions. These results indicate that the used foamed epoxy resin supports and immobilization methodology are suitable for catalyzing the hydrolysis of mannan from açaí seeds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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22 pages, 2553 KiB  
Article
Maximizing the Recovery of Phenolic Antioxidants from Wild Strawberry (Fragaria vesca) Leaves Using Microwave-Assisted Extraction and Accelerated Solvent Extraction
by Petra Terpinc, Erika Dobroslavić, Ivona Elez Garofulić, Maja Repajić, Ena Cegledi, Ana Dobrinčić, Sandra Pedisić and Branka Levaj
Processes 2023, 11(12), 3378; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11123378 - 6 Dec 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1637
Abstract
Due to the presence of diverse phenolic classes in wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) leaves, there is an ever-growing effort to find new, efficient methods for their recovery and detailed characterization. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) were evaluated to [...] Read more.
Due to the presence of diverse phenolic classes in wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) leaves, there is an ever-growing effort to find new, efficient methods for their recovery and detailed characterization. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) were evaluated to understand the impact of the extraction temperature, extraction time, and solvent-to-sample ratio (SSR) on the quantitative and qualitative properties of the obtained extracts. The highest total phenolic content (8027 mg GA/100 g DW), as well as the highest DPPH• antiradical activity (903 μmol TE/g DW), was obtained with ASE at 150 °C with a static time of 5 min and an SSR of 40:1, while the highest ABTS•+ antiradical activity (681 μmol TE/g DW) and FRAP (2389 μmol TE/g DW) were obtained with MAE after 5 min at 80 °C and an SSR of 40:1. A total of 54 different phenolics were identified by UPLC/MS-MS, some for the first time. The MAE extract had a higher content of phenolic acids (40%; esp. p-hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid) and myricetin, while the ASE extract was richer in proanthocyanidins (88%; esp. procyanidin B1, procyanidin trimer), flavonols (29%; esp. quercetin, quercetin-3-glucuronide, rutin), flavan-3-ols (50%; esp. epicatechin), and flavones (39%; esp. luteolin). The results indicated that for optimal extraction conditions, the target phenolics and the desired antioxidant properties of the obtained extracts should be considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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Review

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25 pages, 1838 KiB  
Review
Achievements and Challenges of Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion Usage in the Extraction of Plants and Food Samples
by Agnieszka Zgoła-Grześkowiak, Tomasz Grześkowiak, Magdalena Ligor and Robert Frankowski
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1146; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061146 - 1 Jun 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1262
Abstract
A review of the application of matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) in the extraction of biologically active compounds and impurities from plants and food samples with a particular emphasis on conventional and new types of sorbents has been provided. An overview of MSPD applications [...] Read more.
A review of the application of matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) in the extraction of biologically active compounds and impurities from plants and food samples with a particular emphasis on conventional and new types of sorbents has been provided. An overview of MSPD applications for the isolation of organic residues from biological samples, determined using chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques, has been presented. In this study, procedural solutions that may extend MSDP applicability for the extraction such as vortex-assisted, ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, and extraction with a magnetic sorbent have been discussed. Special attention has been paid to MSPD sorbents including modified silica, diatomite, magnesium silicate, alumina, carbon materials (carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, graphene, or graphite), molecularly imprinted polymers, and cyclodextrin. An important aspect of the MSPD procedure is the use of high-purity and environmentally friendly solvents for extraction (e.g., deep eutectic solvents), with such criteria being the most important for modern analytical chemistry. Many advantages of MSPD are presented, such as high recoveries, the requirement for a smaller volume of solvent, and shorter procedure times than classical methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Separation and Extraction Techniques in Food Processing and Analysis)
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