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Remote Sensing
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Time-of-Flight Range-Imaging Cameras
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Time-of-Flight Range-Imaging Cameras

A special issue of Remote Sensing (ISSN 2072-4292).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 September 2011) | Viewed by 53131

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Fabio Remondino

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
3D Optical Metrology (3DOM) Unit, Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK), 38123 Trento, Italy
Interests: geomatics; mapping; UAV
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. David Stoppa

E-Mail
Guest Editor
Advanced Optical Solutions division, ams AG, Rueschlikon, Switzerland
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

3D Range-imaging and range-cameras are playing an important role in many research and application fields. Thanks to the Time-of-Flight measurement principle, range-cameras deliver simultaneously intensity images (2D) and ranges of the observed scene. They can feature different pixel architectures with advantages and disadvantages reflected in the delivered 3D images.

This special issue seeks research and review contributions from both the metrology and sensor communities covering the algorithms, methodologies, applications, developments and realizations of 3D time-of-flight range cameras. Topics include, but are not limited to:

- Geometric calibration
- Accuracy and performance evaluations
- Scene reconstruction and 3D modeling
- Integrated sensors for TOF Imaging
- SPAD-based 3D imaging
- 3D camera systems
- Indoor and robotics navigation
- Security, architectural, automotive and safety applications

Dr. Fabio Remondino
Dr. David Soppa
Guest Editors

Keywords

  • range cameras
  • Time-of-Flight (TOF)
  • 3D range imaging
  • active sensors
  • calibration
  • 3D modeling
  • CMOS/SPAD detectors
  • automotive
  • security

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

1869 KiB  
Article
SR-4000 and CamCube3.0 Time of Flight (ToF) Cameras: Tests and Comparison
by Dario Piatti and Fulvio Rinaudo
Remote Sens. 2012, 4(4), 1069-1089; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs4041069 - 18 Apr 2012
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 14381
Abstract
In this paper experimental comparisons between two Time-of-Flight (ToF) cameras are reported in order to test their performance and to give some procedures for testing data delivered by this kind of technology. In particular, the SR-4000 camera by Mesa Imaging AG and the [...] Read more.
In this paper experimental comparisons between two Time-of-Flight (ToF) cameras are reported in order to test their performance and to give some procedures for testing data delivered by this kind of technology. In particular, the SR-4000 camera by Mesa Imaging AG and the CamCube3.0 by PMD Technologies have been evaluated since they have good performances and are well known to researchers dealing with Time-of-Flight (ToF) cameras. After a brief overview of commercial ToF cameras available on the market and the main specifications of the tested devices, two topics are presented in this paper. First, the influence of camera warm-up on distance measurement is analyzed: a warm-up of 40 minutes is suggested to obtain the measurement stability, especially in the case of the CamCube3.0 camera, that exhibits distance measurement variations of several centimeters. Secondly, the variation of distance measurement precision variation over integration time is presented: distance measurement precisions of some millimeters are obtained in both cases. Finally, a comparison between the two cameras based on the experiments and some information about future work on evaluation of sunlight influence on distance measurements are reported. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Time-of-Flight Range-Imaging Cameras)
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Graphical abstract

215 KiB  
Communication
Beyond Range: Innovating Fluorescence Microscopy
by Alessandro Esposito
Remote Sens. 2012, 4(1), 111-119; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs4010111 - 5 Jan 2012
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 9691
Abstract
Time-of-Flight (ToF) technologies are developed mainly for range estimations in industrial applications or consumer products. Recently, it was realized that ToF sensors could also be used for the detection of fluorescence and of the minute changes in the nanosecond-lived electronic states of fluorescent [...] Read more.
Time-of-Flight (ToF) technologies are developed mainly for range estimations in industrial applications or consumer products. Recently, it was realized that ToF sensors could also be used for the detection of fluorescence and of the minute changes in the nanosecond-lived electronic states of fluorescent molecules. This capability can be exploited to report on the biochemical processes occurring within living organisms. ToF technologies, therefore, provide new opportunities in molecular and cell biology, diagnostics, and drug discovery. In this short communication, the convergence of the engineering and biomedical communities onto ToF technologies and its potential impact on basic, applied and translational sciences are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Time-of-Flight Range-Imaging Cameras)
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427 KiB  
Article
Understanding and Ameliorating Non-Linear Phase and Amplitude Responses in AMCW Lidar
by John P. Godbaz, Michael J. Cree and Adrian A. Dorrington
Remote Sens. 2012, 4(1), 21-42; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs4010021 - 23 Dec 2011
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 9219
Abstract
Amplitude modulated continuous wave (AMCW) lidar systems commonly suffer from non-linear phase and amplitude responses due to a number of known factors such as aliasing and multipath inteference. In order to produce useful range and intensity information it is necessary to remove these [...] Read more.
Amplitude modulated continuous wave (AMCW) lidar systems commonly suffer from non-linear phase and amplitude responses due to a number of known factors such as aliasing and multipath inteference. In order to produce useful range and intensity information it is necessary to remove these perturbations from the measurements. We review the known causes of non-linearity, namely aliasing, temporal variation in correlation waveform shape and mixed pixels/multipath inteference. We also introduce other sources of non-linearity, including crosstalk, modulation waveform envelope decay and non-circularly symmetric noise statistics, that have been ignored in the literature. An experimental study is conducted to evaluate techniques for mitigation of non-linearity, and it is found that harmonic cancellation provides a significant improvement in phase and amplitude linearity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Time-of-Flight Range-Imaging Cameras)
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329 KiB  
Article
Figures of Merit for Indirect Time-of-Flight 3D Cameras: Definition and Experimental Evaluation
by Matteo Perenzoni and David Stoppa
Remote Sens. 2011, 3(11), 2461-2472; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs3112461 - 17 Nov 2011
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 10556
Abstract
Indirect Time-of-Flight (I-TOF) cameras can be implemented in a number of ways, each with specific characteristics and performances. In this paper a comprehensive analysis of the implementation possibilities is developed in order to model the main performances with a high level of abstraction. [...] Read more.
Indirect Time-of-Flight (I-TOF) cameras can be implemented in a number of ways, each with specific characteristics and performances. In this paper a comprehensive analysis of the implementation possibilities is developed in order to model the main performances with a high level of abstraction. After the extraction of the main characteristics for the high-level model, several figures of merit (FoM) are defined with the purpose of obtaining a common metric: noise equivalent distance, correlated and uncorrelated power responsivity, and background light rejection ratio. The obtained FoMs can be employed for the comparison of different implementations of range cameras based on the I-TOF method: specifically, they are applied for several different sensors developed by the authors in order to compare their performances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Time-of-Flight Range-Imaging Cameras)
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400 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of Three Geometric Self-Calibration Methods for Range Cameras
by Derek D. Lichti and Changjae Kim
Remote Sens. 2011, 3(5), 1014-1028; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs3051014 - 20 May 2011
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 7865
Abstract
Significant instrumental systematic errors are known to exist in data captured with range cameras using lock-in pixel technology. Because they are independent of the imaged object scene structure, these errors can be rigorously estimated in a self-calibrating bundle adjustment procedure. This paper presents [...] Read more.
Significant instrumental systematic errors are known to exist in data captured with range cameras using lock-in pixel technology. Because they are independent of the imaged object scene structure, these errors can be rigorously estimated in a self-calibrating bundle adjustment procedure. This paper presents a review and a quantitative comparison of three methods for range camera self-calibration in order to determine which, if any, is superior. Two different SwissRanger range cameras have been calibrated using each method. Though differences of up to 2 mm (in object space) in both the observation precision and accuracy measures exist between the methods, they are of little practical consequence when compared to the magnitude of these measures (12 mm to 18 mm). One of the methods was found to underestimate the principal distance but overestimate the rangefinder offset in comparison to the other two methods whose estimates agreed more closely. Strong correlations among the rangefinder offset, periodic error terms and the camera position co-ordinates are indentified and their cause explained in terms of network geometry and observation range. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Time-of-Flight Range-Imaging Cameras)
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