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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Electronic Sensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2024) | Viewed by 28729

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Prof. Dr. Edmond Cretu

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Guest Editor

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
Interests: MEMS; inertial sensors; microsystems; signal processing and control; microtechnologies; ultrasound; CMUT
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Chang Ge

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
Interests: MEMS; polymer MEMS; laser micromachining; additive manufacturing; polymer micromachining; tactile sensors
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are microstructures able to couple the mechanical and electrical energy domains at micro- or nanoscales, often involving other energy domains in these interactions. Their micrometre-scale dimensions generate both specific advantages (e.g., electromechanical feedback control, fast time response and better efficiency for some specific sensing mechanisms) and challenges (e.g., lower energy generation yield for thermal micromachines), leading to rethinking the design and analysis methods for customized macroengineering at microscale solutions. Technological advances in MEMS initially took advantage of the existing microelectronics industry, and have gradually spurred specific microfabrication methods, traversing beyond silicon. In this context, an increasing amount of research and applications has emerged for MEMS transducers.

This Special Issue aims to encompass high-quality research contributions focusing on the advances in MEMS sensors. Topics to be covered include (but are not limited to):

Suitable mechanisms for enhanced sensing in microsystems: weakly coupled resonators, stochastic resonance, parametric amplification, operation on the stability border, etc.;
Modern techniques for interfacing transducers to electronic systems for advanced signal processing and data fusion (sigma-delta, sliding mode control, etc.), including hybrid integration techniques between MEMS devices and electronic subsystems;
Modern trends, e.g., polymer CMUT transducer arrays for ultrasound imaging (from Si to alternative technologies);
Sensor arrays and sensor networks, including data fusion aspects;
The stimulating coupling between clusters of MEMS sensors and present advances in intelligent signal processing, including machine learning aspects integrated with high-performance sensing.

Prof. Dr. Edmond Cretu
Dr. Chang Ge
Guest Editors

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Keywords

microsystems
MEMS
microsensors
microfabrication
sensor networks
intelligent sensors

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Advanced Sensors in MEMS: 2nd Edition in Sensors (1 article)

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 3409 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metal Microelectromechanical Resonator Exhibiting Fast Human Activity Detection

by Francesc Torres, Arantxa Uranga and Núria Barniol

Sensors 2023, 23(21), 8945; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23218945 - 3 Nov 2023

Viewed by 675

Abstract

This work presents a MEMS resonator used as an ultra-high resolution water vapor sensor (humidity sensing) to detect human activity through finger movement as a demonstrator example. This microelectromechanical resonator is designed as a clamped-clamped beam fabricated using the top metal layer of a commercial CMOS technology (0.35 μm CMOS-AMS) and monolithically integrated with conditioning and readout circuitry. Sensing is performed through the resonance frequency change due to the addition of water onto the clamped-clamped beam coming from the moisture created by the evaporation of water in the human body. The sensitivity and high-speed response to the addition of water onto the metal bridge, as well as the quick dewetting of the surface, make it suitable for low-power human activity sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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17 pages, 9748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fabrication and Characterization of Three-Dimensional Microelectromechanical System Coaxial Socket Device for Semiconductor Package Testing

by Tae-Kyun Kim, Jong-Gwan Yook, Joo-Yong Kim, Yong-Ho Cho and Uh-Hyeon Lee

Sensors 2023, 23(14), 6350; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23146350 - 12 Jul 2023

Viewed by 3311

Abstract

With the continuous reduction in size and increase in density of semiconductor devices, there is a growing demand for contact solutions that enable high-speed testing in automotive, 5G, and artificial intelligence-based devices. Although existing solutions, such as spring pins and rubber sockets, have been effective in various applications, there is still a need for new solutions that accommodate fine-pitch, high-speed, and high-density requirements. This study proposes a novel three-dimensional microelectromechanical system spring structure coaxial socket for semiconductor chip package testing. The socket design incorporates impedance matching for high-speed testing and addresses the challenges of fine-pitch and high-density applications. Mechanical tests are conducted to evaluate the durability of the structure and electrical tests are performed to verify electrical characteristics by utilizing a vector network analyzer up to 60 GHz. Our results have revealed promising performance and will help in further optimizing the design for potential production in the field and industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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7 pages, 4448 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Research on Dust Effect for MEMS Thermal Wind Sensors

by Zhenxiang Yi, Yishan Wang, Ming Qin and Qingan Huang

Sensors 2023, 23(12), 5533; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23125533 - 13 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1317

Abstract

This communication investigated the dust effect on microelectromechanical system (MEMS) thermal wind sensors, with an aim to evaluate performance in practical applications. An equivalent circuit was established to analyze the temperature gradient influenced by dust accumulation on the sensor’s surface. The finite element method (FEM) simulation was carried out to verify the proposed model using COMSOL Multiphysics software. In experiments, dust was accumulated on the sensor’s surface by two different methods. The measured results indicated that the output voltage for the sensor with dust on its surface was a little smaller than that of the sensor without dust at the same wind speed, which can degrade the measurement sensitivity and accuracy. Compared to the sensor without dust, the average voltage was reduced by about 1.91% and 3.75% when the dustiness was 0.04 g/mL and 0.12 g/mL, respectively. The results can provide a reference for the actual application of thermal wind sensors in harsh environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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16 pages, 4162 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Polyimide-On-Silicon 2D Piezoelectric Micromachined Ultrasound Transducer (PMUT) Array

by Sanjog Vilas Joshi, Sina Sadeghpour and Michael Kraft

Sensors 2023, 23(10), 4826; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23104826 - 17 May 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2294

Abstract

This paper presents a fully addressable 8 × 8 two-dimensional (2D) rigid piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducer (PMUT) array. The PMUTs were fabricated on a standard silicon wafer, resulting in a low-cost solution for ultrasound imaging. A polyimide layer is used as the passive layer in the PMUT membranes on top of the active piezoelectric layer. The PMUT membranes are realized by backside deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) with an oxide etch stop. The polyimide passive layer enables high resonance frequencies that can be easily tuned by controlling the thickness of the polyimide. The fabricated PMUT with 6 µm polyimide thickness showed a 3.2 MHz in-air frequency with a 3 nm/V sensitivity. The PMUT has shown an effective coupling coefficient of 14% as calculated from the impedance analysis. An approximately 1% interelement crosstalk between the PMUT elements in one array is observed, which is at least a five-fold reduction compared to the state of the art. A pressure response of 40 Pa/V at 5 mm was measured underwater using a hydrophone while exciting a single PMUT element. A single-pulse response captured using the hydrophone suggested a 70% −6 dB fractional bandwidth for the 1.7 MHz center frequency. The demonstrated results have the potential to enable imaging and sensing applications in shallow-depth regions, subject to some optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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17 pages, 19420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Ring Disk Resonator with Elliptic Spokes for Frequency-Modulated Gyroscope

by Shihe Wang, Jianlin Chen, Takashiro Tsukamoto and Shuji Tanaka

Sensors 2023, 23(6), 2937; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23062937 - 8 Mar 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1794

Abstract

In this paper, we report a multi-ring disk resonator with elliptic spokes for compensating the aniso-elasticity of (100) single crystal silicon. The structural coupling between each ring segments can be controlled by replacing the straight beam spokes with the elliptic spokes. The degeneration of two n = 2 wineglass modes could be realized by optimizing the design parameters of the elliptic spokes. The mode-matched resonator could be obtained when the design parameter, aspect ratio of the elliptic spokes was 25/27. The proposed principle was demonstrated by both numerical simulation and experiment. A frequency mismatch as small as 1330 ± 900 ppm could be experimentally demonstrated, which was much smaller than that of the conventional disk resonator, which achieved as high as 30,000 ppm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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20 pages, 8179 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

An Interface ASIC Design of MEMS Gyroscope with Analog Closed Loop Driving

by Huan Zhang, Weiping Chen, Liang Yin and Qiang Fu

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2615; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052615 - 27 Feb 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4541

Abstract

This paper introduces a digital interface application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) for a micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) vibratory gyroscope. The driving circuit of the interface ASIC uses an automatic gain circuit (AGC) module instead of a phase-locked loop to realize a self-excited vibration, which gives the gyroscope system good robustness. In order to realize the co-simulation of the mechanically sensitive structure and interface circuit of the gyroscope, the equivalent electrical model analysis and modeling of the mechanically sensitive structure of the gyro are carried out by Verilog-A. According to the design scheme of the MEMS gyroscope interface circuit, a system-level simulation model including mechanically sensitive structure and measurement and control circuit is established by SIMULINK. A digital-to-analog converter (ADC) is designed for the digital processing and temperature compensation of the angular velocity in the MEMS gyroscope digital circuit system. Using the positive and negative diode temperature characteristics, the function of the on-chip temperature sensor is realized, and the temperature compensation and zero bias correction are carried out simultaneously. The MEMS interface ASIC is designed using a standard 0.18 μM CMOS BCD process. The experimental results show that the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of sigma-delta (ΣΔ) ADC is 111.56 dB. The nonlinearity of the MEMS gyroscope system is 0.03% over the full-scale range. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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21 pages, 5458 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Passive Wireless Pressure Gradient Measurement System for Fluid Flow Analysis

by Partha P. Dutta, Alexander C. Benken, Tao Li, John Richard Ordonez-Varela and Yogesh B. Gianchandani

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2525; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052525 - 24 Feb 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2289

Abstract

Using distributed MEMS pressure sensors to measure small flow rates in high resistance fluidic channels is fraught with challenges far beyond the performance of the pressure sensing element. In a typical core-flood experiment, which may last several months, flow-induced pressure gradients are generated in porous rock core samples wrapped in a polymer sheath. Measuring these pressure gradients along the flow path requires high resolution pressure measurement while contending with difficult test conditions such as large bias pressures (up to 20 bar) and temperatures (up to 125 °C), as well as the presence of corrosive fluids. This work is directed at a system for using passive wireless inductive-capacitive (LC) pressure sensors that are distributed along the flow path to measure the pressure gradient. The sensors are wirelessly interrogated with readout electronics placed exterior to the polymer sheath for continuous monitoring of experiments. Using microfabricated pressure sensors that are smaller than ø15 × 3.0 mm³, an LC sensor design model for minimizing pressure resolution, accounting for sensor packaging and environmental artifacts is investigated and experimentally validated. A test setup, built to provide fluid-flow pressure differentials to LC sensors with conditions that mimic placement of the sensors within the wall of the sheath, is used to test the system. Experimental results show the microsystem operating over full-scale pressure range of 20,700 mbar and temperatures up to 125 °C, while achieving pressure resolution of <1 mbar, and resolving gradients of 10–30 mL/min, which are typical in core-flood experiments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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16 pages, 3584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Towards a MEMS Force Sensor via the Electromagnetic Principle

by Rene Hartansky, Martin Mierka, Vladimir Jancarik, Mikulas Bittera, Jan Halgos, Michal Dzuris, Jakub Krchnak, Jaroslav Hricko and Robert Andok

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1241; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031241 - 21 Jan 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3399

Abstract

Force measurement is a science discipline that experiences significant progress with the introduction of new materials and evaluation methods. Many different sensor types, working on different principles, have been developed and reviewed and have found use in medicine as well as many other industries. New trends and demands require a size reduction and simple applicability, with the use of, for example, micro electromechanical systems (

M E M S

). For purposes of this study, the initial

M E M S

body is supplemented by its scaled version. Force measurement in this study works on the force to time-delay conversion principle. A compact compliant mechanical body (

C C M B

) with an embedded parallel resonant circuit (

P R C

) acting as a transducer realizes the conversion. Depending on the resonant frequency of the transducer (

C C M B

M E M S

), we have measured the applied force based on the reverse influence of the transducer on the surrounding

E M

field. The analysis shows that the transducer’s resonant frequency has a detectable reverse influence on the voltage-controlled oscillator (

V C O

)

D C

supply current. The force influencing the transducer is determined by the

D C

supply current ripple position during the

V C O

frequency sweep. The study presents the method proposal and mathematical analysis, as well as its function verification by simulation and prototype measurements. The proposed principle was validated on a

C C M B

prototype capable of measuring forces up to ∼

2.5

N at a sampling frequency of ∼23 kHz, while the measured time-delay ranges from

14.5

µs to

27.4

µs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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15 pages, 3531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extended and Generic Higher-Order Elements for MEMS Modeling

by Zdeněk Biolek, Viera Biolková, Dalibor Biolek and Zdeněk Kolka

Sensors 2022, 22(20), 8007; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22208007 - 20 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1362

Abstract

State-dependent resistors, capacitors, and inductors are a common part of many smart engineering solutions, e.g., in MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems) sensors and actuators, Micro/NanoMachines, or biomimetic systems. These memory elements are today modeled as generic and extended memristors (MR), memcapacitors (MC), and meminductors (ML), which are more general versions of classical MR, MC, and ML from the infinite set of the fundamental elements of electrical engineering, known as Higher-Order Elements (HOEs). It turns out that models of many complex phenomena in MEMS cannot be constructed only from classical and state-dependent elements such as R, L, and C, but that other HOEs with generalized behavior should also be used. Thus, in this paper, generic and extended versions of HOEs are introduced, overcoming the existing limitation to MR, MC, and ML elements. The relevant circuit theorems are formulated, which generalize the well-known theorems of classical memory elements, and their application to model complex processes of various physical natures in MEMS is shown. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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Review

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21 pages, 4298 KiB

Open AccessReview

Application of Through Glass Via (TGV) Technology for Sensors Manufacturing and Packaging

by Chen Yu, Shaocheng Wu, Yi Zhong, Rongbin Xu, Tian Yu, Jin Zhao and Daquan Yu

Sensors 2024, 24(1), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24010171 - 28 Dec 2023

Viewed by 6296

Abstract

Glass has emerged as a highly versatile substrate for various sensor and MEMS packaging applications, including electromechanical, thermal, optical, biomedical, and RF devices, due to its exceptional properties such as high geometrical tolerances, outstanding heat and chemical resistance, excellent high-frequency electrical properties, and the ability to be hermetically sealed. In these applications, Through Glass Via (TGV) technology plays a vital role in manufacturing and packaging by creating electrical interconnections through glass substrates. This paper provides a comprehensive summary of the research progress in TGV fabrication along with its integrations, including through via formation and metallization. This paper also reviews the significant qualification and reliability achievements obtained by the scientific community for TGV technology. Additionally, this paper summarizes the application of TGV technology in various sensors such as MEMS sensors and discusses the potential applications and future development directions of TGV technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Sensors in MEMS)

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