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22 pages, 4801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Characterization of a Gas Foil Bearing—A Novel Method of Experimental Identification of the Temperature Field Based on Integrated Thermocouples Measurements

by Adam Martowicz, Paweł Zdziebko, Jakub Roemer, Grzegorz Żywica and Paweł Bagiński

Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5718; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155718 - 30 Jul 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1970

Abstract

Maintenance of adequate thermal properties is critical for correct operation of a gas foil bearing. In this work, the authors present the results of the experimentally conducted thermal characterization of a prototype installation of the bearing. A novel method of temperature identification, based [...] Read more.

Maintenance of adequate thermal properties is critical for correct operation of a gas foil bearing. In this work, the authors present the results of the experimentally conducted thermal characterization of a prototype installation of the bearing. A novel method of temperature identification, based on integrated thermocouples readings, has been employed to determine the thermal properties of the specialized sensing top foil mounted in the tested bearing. Two measurement campaigns have been subsequently completed, applying freely-suspended and two-node support configurations, to gather complementary knowledge regarding the bearing’s operation. Apart from the rotational speed and temperature field measurements, the authors have also studied the friction torque and the shaft’s journal trajectories based on its radial displacements. The temporal courses for the above-mentioned quantities have enabled inference on the effects present during run-up, run-out and stable state operation at a constant speed. As confirmed, the applied distribution of the integrated sensors allows for temperature readings on the entire outer surface of the foil, and therefore, provides useful data for the bearing characterization. The work is concluded with presentation of the recommended directions regarding future improvements of the proposed measurement technique and more comprehensive study of the bearing’s characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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20 pages, 6983 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adjusting the Stiffness of Supports during Milling of a Large-Size Workpiece Using the Salp Swarm Algorithm

by Krzysztof J. Kaliński, Marek A. Galewski, Natalia Stawicka-Morawska, Michał Mazur and Arkadiusz Parus

Sensors 2022, 22(14), 5099; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22145099 - 7 Jul 2022

Viewed by 1686

Abstract

This paper concerns the problem of vibration reduction during milling. For this purpose, it is proposed that the standard supports of the workpiece be replaced with adjustable stiffness supports. This affects the modal parameters of the whole system, i.e., object and its supports, [...] Read more.

This paper concerns the problem of vibration reduction during milling. For this purpose, it is proposed that the standard supports of the workpiece be replaced with adjustable stiffness supports. This affects the modal parameters of the whole system, i.e., object and its supports, which is essential from the point of view of the relative tool–workpiece vibrations. To reduce the vibration level during milling, it is necessary to appropriately set the support stiffness coefficients, which are obtained from numerous milling process simulations. The simulations utilize the model of the workpiece with adjustable supports in the convention of a Finite Element Model (FEM) and a dynamic model of the milling process. The FEM parameters are tuned based on modal tests of the actual workpiece. For assessing simulation results, the proper indicator of vibration level must be selected, which is also discussed in the paper. However, simulating the milling process is time consuming and the total number of simulations needed to search the entire available range of support stiffness coefficients is large. To overcome this issue, the artificial intelligence salp swarm algorithm is used. Finally, for the best combination of stiffness coefficients, the vibration reduction is obtained and a significant reduction in search time for determining the support settings makes the approach proposed in the paper attractive from the point of view of practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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22 pages, 10778 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibration Suppression with Use of Input Shaping Control in Machining

by Mateusz Kasprowiak, Arkadiusz Parus and Marcin Hoffmann

Sensors 2022, 22(6), 2186; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22062186 - 11 Mar 2022

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3965

Abstract

This article discusses the problem of vibrations during machining. The manufacturing process of generator turbine blades is highly complex. Machining using Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) requires low cutting parameters in order to avoid vibration problems. However, even under these conditions, the surface quality [...] Read more.

This article discusses the problem of vibrations during machining. The manufacturing process of generator turbine blades is highly complex. Machining using Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) requires low cutting parameters in order to avoid vibration problems. However, even under these conditions, the surface quality and accuracy of the manufactured objects suffer from high levels of vibrations. Hence, the aim of this research is to counteract this phenomenon. Basic issues related to vibration problems will also be also discussed and a short review of currently available solutions for both active and passive vibration monitoring during machining will be presented. The authors developed a method which does not require any additional equipment other than modified CNC code. The proposed method can be applied to any CNC machine, and is especially suitable for lathes. The method seeks to eradicate the phenomenon of vibrations by providing enhanced control through Input Shaping Control (ISC). For this purpose, the authors present a method for modeling the machining process and design an ISC filter; the model is then implemented in the Matlab and Simulink environment. The last part of the article presents the results, together with a discussion, and includes a brief summary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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12 pages, 29171 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Application of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) Accelerometers to the Assessment of Blast Threat to Armored Vehicle Crew

by Sławomir Kciuk, Edyta Krzystała, Arkadiusz Mężyk and Paweł Szmidt

Sensors 2022, 22(1), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010316 - 31 Dec 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2212

Abstract

This paper describes the development and application of an autonomous register and measurement system (ARMS), and the application of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) accelerometers to the assessment of blast threat to armored vehicle crews. Taking measurements with reference to an explosion is one of [...] Read more.

This paper describes the development and application of an autonomous register and measurement system (ARMS), and the application of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) accelerometers to the assessment of blast threat to armored vehicle crews. Taking measurements with reference to an explosion is one of the principal issues in the protection of crews of special vehicles. The proposed ARMS reduces research costs and contributes to the development of an autonomous, wireless test stand, applicable in various research areas and industry. The ARMS performs data acquisition with simultaneous measurement in multiple channels. The maximum sampling rate is 100 kHz and the sensor range is ±500 g. This solution is an alternative to cable systems, which have a high energy demand. The functionality of the developed autonomous measuring system is demonstrated experimentally. The paper concludes with a field study of the proposed system and the application of MEMS accelerometers via a mine blast test of a military vehicle at level 4 of STANAG 4569. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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19 pages, 10054 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Real-Time Distance Measurement System for a Digital Twin Using Mixed Reality Goggles

by Krzysztof Lalik and Stanisław Flaga

Sensors 2021, 21(23), 7870; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21237870 - 26 Nov 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3151

Abstract

This paper presents a new system architecture for controlling industrial devices using Mixed Reality (MR) applications and a new method based upon them for measuring the distance between real and virtual points. The research has been carried out using a physical robot and [...] Read more.

This paper presents a new system architecture for controlling industrial devices using Mixed Reality (MR) applications and a new method based upon them for measuring the distance between real and virtual points. The research has been carried out using a physical robot and its Digital Twin (DT). The possibility of controlling them using gestures recognized by Mixed Reality goggles has been presented. The extension of the robot’s environment with a 3D model capable of following its movements and positions was also analyzed. The system was supervised by an industrial Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) serving as an end point for the data sent by the goggles and controlling the movements of the real robot by activating the corresponding control. The results of the preliminary measurements presented here concerned the responsiveness of the system and showing the influence of system parameters in the accuracy of distance estimation between measured points. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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17 pages, 4309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EGM Toolbox—Interface for Controlling ABB Robots in Simulink

by Paweł Obal and Piotr Gierlak

Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7463; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21227463 - 10 Nov 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4025

Abstract

The development of industrial robotics requires the use of increasingly sophisticated control algorithms. In modern tasks posed by industry, it is not sufficient for the manipulator to move along a programmed path, reaching individual points with the greatest accuracy. There is a need [...] Read more.

The development of industrial robotics requires the use of increasingly sophisticated control algorithms. In modern tasks posed by industry, it is not sufficient for the manipulator to move along a programmed path, reaching individual points with the greatest accuracy. There is a need for solutions that can allow detection and avoidance of obstacles appearing on the robot’s path and that can compensate the path for low-repetitive workpieces, adjust the strength of the impact of manipulator tools on the workpiece or enable safe cooperation of manipulators with people. To support this development, this work proposes an interface for controlling industrial robots in the Simulink environment. With its use, we can easily test our control algorithms using an external controller without the need to write an extensive program in the RAPID language. The robot controller’s task is to control the drives to achieve the set trajectory. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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14 pages, 1582 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of the Kinematic Excitation Originating from the Irregular Envelope of an Omnidirectional Wheel

by Sławomir Duda, Olaf Dudek, Grzegorz Gembalczyk and Tomasz Machoczek

Sensors 2021, 21(20), 6931; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21206931 - 19 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2019

Abstract

This paper describes a test stand for determining the kinematic excitation originating from the contact between a vehicle’s wheel and the ground, thus acting on the single suspension upright of the vehicle. This excitation is unique to the movement of omnidirectional wheels and [...] Read more.

This paper describes a test stand for determining the kinematic excitation originating from the contact between a vehicle’s wheel and the ground, thus acting on the single suspension upright of the vehicle. This excitation is unique to the movement of omnidirectional wheels and originates from the irregular envelope of the wheel. The presented attitude enables the vertical displacement of the wheel’s axis rolling on a horizontal surface to be determined. This work includes experimental results considering different wheel orientations against the direction of movement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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19 pages, 11740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of SMA Electrical Resistance Change during Cyclic Stretching with Small Elongation

by Sebastian Sławski, Marek Kciuk and Wojciech Klein

Sensors 2021, 21(20), 6804; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21206804 - 13 Oct 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3042

Abstract

In this article, changes in NiTi alloy (Flexinol) electrical resistance during cyclic stretching with small elongation were investigated. A dedicated test stand consisting of motorized vertical test stand, force gauge, and electric resistance measuring device with an accuracy of 0.006 Ω was developed. [...] Read more.

In this article, changes in NiTi alloy (Flexinol) electrical resistance during cyclic stretching with small elongation were investigated. A dedicated test stand consisting of motorized vertical test stand, force gauge, and electric resistance measuring device with an accuracy of 0.006 Ω was developed. A dedicated control algorithm was developed using LabVIEW software. Changes in electrical resistance were investigated for the 0.1 mm Flexinol wire with length of 120 mm. Testing was performed in the elongation range between 0.25% and 1.5% in martensite phase. Tested samples were subjected to 30 stretching cycles with a movement speed of 10 mm/min. Obtained results show that the cyclic stretching of Flexinol wire reduces its electrical resistance with each stretching cycle. Moreover, it was noted that changes in Flexinol electrical resistance during cycling stretching depend on the assumed elongation and number of the already performed stretching cycles. The observed electrical resistance change decreases with each stretching cycle. Thus, the observed changes are greater during the first stretching cycles. For elongations exceeding 1%, the Flexinol electrical resistance in the first stretching cycle increases. In each subsequent cycle, electrical resistance decreases, as in the case of the smallest value of assumed elongation. In almost all tested cases (except in the case with 1.5% of assumed elongation), Flexinol electrical resistance after 30 stretching cycles was smaller than before the test. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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16 pages, 29952 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Excited Acoustical Measurement System for Rock Mass Stress Mapping

by Krzysztof Lalik, Ireneusz Dominik, Krzysztof Skrzypkowski, Waldemar Korzeniowski and Krzysztof Zagórski

Sensors 2021, 21(20), 6749; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21206749 - 11 Oct 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1813

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a preliminary study of a self-excited acoustical system (SAS) for nondestructive testing (NDT). The SAS system was used for mine excavation stresses examination. The principle of operation of the SAS system based on the elastoacoustical effect is [...] Read more.

This paper presents the results of a preliminary study of a self-excited acoustical system (SAS) for nondestructive testing (NDT). The SAS system was used for mine excavation stresses examination. The principle of operation of the SAS system based on the elastoacoustical effect is presented. A numerical analysis of the excavation was carried out considering the stress factor. An equivalent model based on a two-degree-of-freedom system with a delay has been developed. This model allowed to determine the relation which relates the frequency of the self-excited system to the stress level in the studied ceiling section. This relationship is defined by the elastoacoustic coefficient. The test details for anchorages in laboratory conditions and Wieliczka Salt Mine were presented. This research details of a method for creating actual stress maps in the ceiling of a mine excavation. The results confirmed the possibility of using the new measurement system to monitor the state of stresses in the rock mass. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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13 pages, 4154 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Nonprehensile Manipulation of Parts on a Horizontal Circularly Oscillating Platform with Dynamic Dry Friction Control

by Sigitas Kilikevičius, Kristina Liutkauskienė and Algimantas Fedaravičius

Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5581; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165581 - 19 Aug 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2349

Abstract

This paper presents a novel method for nonprehensile manipulation of parts on a circularly oscillating platform when the effective coefficient of dry friction between the part and the platform is being dynamically controlled. Theoretical and experimental analyses have been performed to validate the [...] Read more.

This paper presents a novel method for nonprehensile manipulation of parts on a circularly oscillating platform when the effective coefficient of dry friction between the part and the platform is being dynamically controlled. Theoretical and experimental analyses have been performed to validate the proposed method and to determine the control parameters that define the characteristics of the part’s motion. A mathematical model of the manipulation process with dynamic dry friction control was developed and solved. The modeling showed that by changing the phase shift between the function for dynamic dry friction control and the function defining the circular motion of the platform, the part can be moved in any direction as the angle of displacement can be controlled in a full range from 0 to 2π. The nature of the trajectory and the mean displacement velocity of the part mainly depend on the width of the rectangular function for dynamic dry friction control. To verify the theoretical findings, an experimental setup was developed, and experiments of manipulation were carried out. The experimental results qualitatively confirmed the theoretical findings. The presented analysis enriches the classical theories of nonprehensile manipulation on oscillating platforms, and the presented findings are relevant for mechatronics, robotics, mechanics, electronics, medical, and other industries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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22 pages, 10554 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mild Steel GMA Welds Microstructural Analysis and Estimation Using Sensor Fusion and Neural Network Modeling

by Leandro Bruno Alves Caio, Alysson Martins Almeida Silva, Guillermo Alvarez Bestard, Lais Soares Vieira, Guilherme Caribé de Carvalho and Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro

Sensors 2021, 21(16), 5459; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21165459 - 13 Aug 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2976

Abstract

This study aims at evaluating the efficiency of sensor fusion, based on neural networks, to estimate the microstructural characteristics of both the weld bead and base material in GMAW processes. The weld beads of AWS ER70S-6 wire were deposited on SAE 1020 steel [...] Read more.

This study aims at evaluating the efficiency of sensor fusion, based on neural networks, to estimate the microstructural characteristics of both the weld bead and base material in GMAW processes. The weld beads of AWS ER70S-6 wire were deposited on SAE 1020 steel plates varying welding voltage, welding speed, and wire-feed speed. The thermal behavior of the material during the process execution was analyzed using thermographic information gathered by an infrared camera. The microstructure was characterized by optical (confocal) microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray Diffraction tests. Finally, models for estimating the weld bead microstructure were developed by fusing all the information through a neural network modeling approach. A R value of 0.99472 was observed for modelling all zones of microstructure in the same ANN using Bayesian Regularization with 17 and 15 neurons in the first and second hidden layers, respectively, with 4 training runs (which was the lowest R value among all tested configurations). The results obtained prove that RNAs can be used to assist the project of welded joints as they make it possible to estimate the extension of HAZ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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31 pages, 8368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Control System Design of an Underactuated Dynamic Body Weight Support System Using Its Stability

by Grzegorz Gembalczyk, Piotr Gierlak and Slawomir Duda

Sensors 2021, 21(15), 5051; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155051 - 26 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2624

Abstract

This paper discusses the stability of systems controlling patient body weight support systems which are used in gait re-education. These devices belong to the class of underactuated mechanical systems. This is due to the application of elastic shock-absorbing connections between the active part [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the stability of systems controlling patient body weight support systems which are used in gait re-education. These devices belong to the class of underactuated mechanical systems. This is due to the application of elastic shock-absorbing connections between the active part of the system and the passive part which impacts the patient. The model takes into account properties of the system, such as inertia, attenuation and susceptibility to the elements. Stability is an essential property of the system due to human–device interaction. In order to demonstrate stability, Lyapunov’s theory of stability, which is based on the model of system dynamics, was applied. The stability of the control system based on a model that requires knowledge of the structure and parameters of the equations of motion was demonstrated. Due to inaccuracies in the modeling of the rope (one of the basic elements of the device), an adaptive control system was introduced and its stability was also proved. The authors conducted simulation and experimental tests that illustrate the functionality of the analyzed control systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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20 pages, 5477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Interactive Haptic Guidance System for Intuitive Programming CNC Machine Tool

by Kamil Stateczny and Karol Miądlicki

Sensors 2021, 21(11), 3860; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113860 - 3 Jun 2021

Viewed by 3390

Abstract

The human-machine interfaces in modern CNC machine tools are not very intuitive and still based on archaic input systems, i.e., switches, handwheels, and buttons. This type of solution has two major drawbacks. The pushed button activates the movement only in one direction and [...] Read more.

The human-machine interfaces in modern CNC machine tools are not very intuitive and still based on archaic input systems, i.e., switches, handwheels, and buttons. This type of solution has two major drawbacks. The pushed button activates the movement only in one direction and is insensitive to the amount of the force exerted by the operator, which makes it difficult to move the machine axes at variable speeds. The paper proposes a novel and intuitive system of manual programming of a CNC machine tool based on a control lever with strain-gauge sensors. The presented idea of manual programming is aimed at eliminating the need to create a machining program and at making it possible to move the machine intuitively, eliminating mistakes in selecting directions and speeds. The article describes the concept of the system and the principle of operation of the control levers with force sensors. The final part of the work presents the experimental validation of the proposed system and a functionality comparison with the traditional CNC control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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18 pages, 5184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Multicriteria Inference Method to Identify and Classify Selected Combustion Engine Malfunctions Based on Vehicle Structure Vibrations

by Krzysztof Prażnowski, Andrzej Bieniek, Jarosław Mamala and Adam Deptuła

Sensors 2021, 21(7), 2470; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21072470 - 2 Apr 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2395

Abstract

Internal combustion engines are among the most commonly used propulsion units for drive systems in various industries such as land transportation, maritime transportation, and power generation. Their operation involves a continuous change of technical condition as a result of not only the combustion [...] Read more.

Internal combustion engines are among the most commonly used propulsion units for drive systems in various industries such as land transportation, maritime transportation, and power generation. Their operation involves a continuous change of technical condition as a result of not only the combustion process but also their operation under conditions of variable load or ambient impact. It is therefore important to monitor the technical condition of internal combustion engines to ensure high performance and reliability over their lifetime. The article presents the test results obtained from incorrect operation of an internal combustion engine as a result of forced failures of the ignition and injection system. On this basis, a multicriteria comparison of the signal analysis of engine block vibrations was made, after the transformation of the signal from the time domain to the frequency domain, by using the induction technique obtained from the operation of decision tree algorithms. For this purpose, the amplitude spectrum in the frequency domain, scaled to absolute values of discretization for which teaching and testing data tables were created for successive harmonics, was determined for the engine block vibration signal being tested. On the basis of the developed algorithm using decision trees, a multicriteria data table was analyzed for which a compatibility path for the analyzed engine block vibration signal is created. In this way, it is confirmed with a specified degree of effectiveness, depending on the point of operation of the engine resulting from its crankshaft speed, that there is a possibility of detecting a preset ignition or injection system malfunction in the technical condition of the internal combustion engine with a probability up to about 72%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Mechatronic Systems—Materials, Sensors and Interfaces)

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