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20 pages, 7184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Intelligent Hierarchical Admission Control for Low-Earth Orbit Satellites Based on Deep Reinforcement Learning

by Debin Wei, Chuanqi Guo and Li Yang

Sensors 2023, 23(20), 8470; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23208470 - 14 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1420

Abstract

Low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites have limited on-board resources, user terminals are unevenly distributed in the constantly changing coverage area, and the service requirements vary significantly. It is urgent to optimize resource allocation under the constraint of limited satellite spectrum resources and ensure the [...] Read more.

Low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites have limited on-board resources, user terminals are unevenly distributed in the constantly changing coverage area, and the service requirements vary significantly. It is urgent to optimize resource allocation under the constraint of limited satellite spectrum resources and ensure the fairness of service admission control. Therefore, we propose an intelligent hierarchical admission control (IHAC) strategy based on deep reinforcement learning (DRL). This strategy combines the deep deterministic policy gradient (DDPG) and the deep Q network (DQN) intelligent algorithm to construct upper and lower hierarchical resource allocation and admission control frameworks. The upper controller considers the state features of each ground zone and satellite resources from a global perspective, and determines the beam resource allocation ratio of each ground zone. The lower controller formulates the admission control policy based on the decision of the upper controller and the detailed information of the users’ services. At the same time, a designed reward and punishment mechanism is used to optimize the decisions of the upper and lower controllers. The fairness of users’ services admissions in each ground zone is achieved as far as possible while ensuring the reasonable allocation of beam resources among zones. Finally, online decision-making and offline learning were combined, so that the controller could make full use of a large number of historical data to learn and generate intelligent strategies with stronger adaptive ability while interacting with the network environment in real time. A large number of simulation results show that IHAC has better performance in terms of a successful service admission rate, service drop rate, and fair resource allocation. Among them, the number of accepted services increased by 20.36% on average, the packet loss rate decreased by 17.56% on average, and the resource fairness increased by 17.16% on average. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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18 pages, 4056 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Feeder Link Handover Strategy for Backhaul in LEO Satellite Networks

by Yuke Zhou, Jiang Liu, Ran Zhang, Man Ouyang and Tao Huang

Sensors 2023, 23(12), 5448; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23125448 - 8 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2255

Abstract

Thanks to their wide coverage and relatively low latency compared to geosynchronous satellites, Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite networks have been regarded as one of the most promising solutions to provide global broadband backhaul for mobile users and IoT devices. In LEO satellite [...] Read more.

Thanks to their wide coverage and relatively low latency compared to geosynchronous satellites, Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite networks have been regarded as one of the most promising solutions to provide global broadband backhaul for mobile users and IoT devices. In LEO satellite networks, the frequent feeder link handover invokes unacceptable communication interruptions and affects the backhaul quality. To overcome this challenge, we propose a maximum backhaul capacity handover strategy for feeder links in LEO satellite networks. To improve the backhaul capacity, we design an available backhaul capacity ratio to jointly consider feeder link quality and the inter-satellite network in handover decisions. In addition, we introduce a service time factor and handover control factor to reduce the handover frequency. Then, we propose the handover utility function based on the designed handover factors and propose a greedy-based handover strategy. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy outperforms conventional handover strategies in backhaul capacity with low handover frequency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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17 pages, 7370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generating Low-Earth Orbit Satellite Attitude Maneuver Profiles Using Deep Neural Networks

by Seok-Teak Yun

Sensors 2023, 23(10), 4650; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23104650 - 11 May 2023

Viewed by 2693

Abstract

To perform Earth observations, low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites require attitude maneuvers, which can be classified into two types: maintenance of a target-pointing attitude and maneuvering between target-pointing attitudes. The former depends on the observation target, while the latter has nonlinear characteristics and must [...] Read more.

To perform Earth observations, low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites require attitude maneuvers, which can be classified into two types: maintenance of a target-pointing attitude and maneuvering between target-pointing attitudes. The former depends on the observation target, while the latter has nonlinear characteristics and must consider various conditions. Therefore, generating an optimal reference attitude profile is difficult. Mission performance and satellite antenna position-to-ground communication are also determined by the maneuver profile between the target-pointing attitudes. Generating a reference maneuver profile with small errors before target pointing can enhance the quality of the observation images and increase the maximum possible number of missions and accuracy of ground contact. Therefore, herein we proposed a technique for optimizing the maneuver profile between target-pointing attitudes based on data-based learning. We used a deep neural network based on bidirectional long short-term memory to model the quaternion profiles of LEO satellites. This model was used to predict the maneuvers between target-pointing attitudes. After predicting the attitude profile, it was differentiated to obtain the time and angular acceleration profiles. The optimal maneuver reference profile was obtained by Bayesian-based optimization. To verify the performance of the proposed technique, the results of maneuvers in the 2–68° range were analyzed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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18 pages, 3306 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An On-Orbit Task-Offloading Strategy Based on Satellite Edge Computing

by Yifei Hu and Wenbin Gong

Sensors 2023, 23(9), 4271; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23094271 - 25 Apr 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2427

Abstract

Satellite edge computing has attracted the attention of many scholars due to its extensive coverage and low delay. Satellite edge computing research remains focused on on-orbit task scheduling. However, existing research has not considered the situation where heavily loaded satellites cannot participate in [...] Read more.

Satellite edge computing has attracted the attention of many scholars due to its extensive coverage and low delay. Satellite edge computing research remains focused on on-orbit task scheduling. However, existing research has not considered the situation where heavily loaded satellites cannot participate in offloading. To solve this problem, this study first models the task scheduling of dynamic satellite networks as a minimization problem that considers both the weighted delay and energy consumption. In addition, a hybrid genetic binary particle swarm optimization (GABPSO) algorithm is proposed to solve this optimization problem. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed method outperforms the other three baseline algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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25 pages, 3112 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Spread Spectrum Aloha Protocol and Beam-Hopping Approach for Return Channel in Satellite Internet of Things

by Liang Gou, Dongming Bian, Baogui Dong and Yulei Nie

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 2116; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23042116 - 13 Feb 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2069

Abstract

This paper examines potential performances of the Spread Spectrum-based random access technique and proposes an Improved Spread Spectrum Aloha (ISSA) protocol for the return channel in satellite Internet of Things (IoT) based on the beam-hopping technique. The key design driver and detailed solution [...] Read more.

This paper examines potential performances of the Spread Spectrum-based random access technique and proposes an Improved Spread Spectrum Aloha (ISSA) protocol for the return channel in satellite Internet of Things (IoT) based on the beam-hopping technique. The key design driver and detailed solution of ISSA protocol are presented in this work and it is shown that the proposed protocol achieves high throughput and low collision probability. To match user/traffic distribution, delay requirement and channel condition with beam allocation better, a low-complexity heuristic beam scheduling algorithm and a more effective Maximum-Weighted Clique (MWC) algorithm have been proposed. The heuristic algorithm considers the user/traffic distribution, inter-beam interference, and fairness primarily. However, the MWC algorithm gives considerations not only on above factors, but also on delay requirement and channel condition (path loss and rain attenuation) to maximize system capacity. The beam angle and interference avoidance threshold are proposed to measure the inter-beam interference, and the link propagation loss and rain attenuation are considered meanwhile in the channel condition. In the MWC algorithm, we construct an auxiliary graph to find the maximum-weighted clique and derive the weighting approach to be applied in different application scenarios. The performance evaluation of our ISSA protocol compared with the SSA protocol is presented, which achieves a gain of

16.7 %

. The simulation of the ISSA protocol combined with round robin, heuristic, and MWC beam scheduling for the return link in beam-hopping satellite IoTs is also provided. The results indicate that the throughput in nonuniform user distribution is much lower than in the uniform case without the beam scheduling algorithm. Through the application of the scheduling algorithm, the throughput performance can approach the uniform distribution. Finally, the degree of user satisfaction with different scheduling approaches is presented, which validates the effectiveness of heuristic and MWC algorithms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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18 pages, 4561 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Terminal Access Performance of Beam-Hopping Satellite in IoT Scenario

by Yulei Nie and Gengxin Zhang

Sensors 2023, 23(3), 1428; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23031428 - 27 Jan 2023

Viewed by 1609

Abstract

In recent years, low-orbit satellites have become an important development direction in satellite IoT systems. The number of terminals is large and data collisions occur frequently in the low-orbit satellite IoT scenario. How to design a reliable random access protocol to improve the [...] Read more.

In recent years, low-orbit satellites have become an important development direction in satellite IoT systems. The number of terminals is large and data collisions occur frequently in the low-orbit satellite IoT scenario. How to design a reliable random access protocol to improve the tolerance of the system for collision is one of the research hotspots in this field. In this paper, the random access protocol, used in the Internet of Things (IoT), for low-orbit satellites is studied, and the access process of the IoT terminals in the scenario is constructed. The access performance of the SSA protocol is analyzed and an improved SSA random access strategy, called Retransmission-SSA (R-SSA), is proposed. The simulation results show that the designed R-SSA can effectively tolerate the signal conflicts between terminals in the beam-hopping LEO IoT scenario and improve the probability of the concurrent access of low-orbit sIoT terminals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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17 pages, 545 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Inter-Satellite Cooperative Offloading Decision and Resource Allocation in Mobile Edge Computing-Enabled Satellite–Terrestrial Networks

by Minglei Tong, Song Li, Xiaoxiang Wang and Peng Wei

Sensors 2023, 23(2), 668; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23020668 - 6 Jan 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2675

Abstract

Mobile edge computing (MEC)-enabled satellite–terrestrial networks (STNs) can provide task computing services for Internet of Things (IoT) devices. However, since some applications’ tasks require huge amounts of computing resources, sometimes the computing resources of a local satellite’s MEC server are insufficient, but the [...] Read more.

Mobile edge computing (MEC)-enabled satellite–terrestrial networks (STNs) can provide task computing services for Internet of Things (IoT) devices. However, since some applications’ tasks require huge amounts of computing resources, sometimes the computing resources of a local satellite’s MEC server are insufficient, but the computing resources of neighboring satellites’ MEC servers are redundant. Therefore, we investigated inter-satellite cooperation in MEC-enabled STNs. First, we designed a system model of the MEC-enabled STN architecture, where the local satellite and the neighboring satellites assist IoT devices in computing tasks through inter-satellite cooperation. The local satellite migrates some tasks to the neighboring satellites to utilize their idle resources. Next, the task completion delay minimization problem for all IoT devices is formulated and decomposed. Then, we propose an inter-satellite cooperative joint offloading decision and resource allocation optimization scheme, which consists of a task offloading decision algorithm based on the Grey Wolf Optimizer (GWO) algorithm and a computing resource allocation algorithm based on the Lagrange multiplier method. The optimal solution is obtained by continuous iterations. Finally, simulation results demonstrate that the proposed scheme achieves relatively better performance than other baseline schemes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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19 pages, 555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Efficient Polar Coded Selective Decode-and-Forward with Cooperative Decision Threshold in Cooperative Multi-Relay Transmissions

by Bin Jiang, Yue Tang, Jianrong Bao, Chao Liu and Yanhai Shang

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010165 - 24 Dec 2022

Viewed by 1707

Abstract

In some satellite Internet of Things (IoT) devices with terrain shielding, the qualities of the direct source-destination (S-D) channel are poor, requiring cooperative communications with multi-relays to be employed. In order to solve error propagation of current decode-and-forward (DF) on such occasions, an [...] Read more.

In some satellite Internet of Things (IoT) devices with terrain shielding, the qualities of the direct source-destination (S-D) channel are poor, requiring cooperative communications with multi-relays to be employed. In order to solve error propagation of current decode-and-forward (DF) on such occasions, an efficient polar coded selective decode-and-forward (SDF) cooperation method is proposed with a new decision threshold derived from channel state information (CSI). First, the proposed threshold is derived from the CSI by exploiting the channel gain ratio of optimal relay-destination link (R-D) with source-relay (S-R) link. The above R-D link possesses good channel quality among all links in the system. Second, when the channel gain ratio of certain relay links is larger than the aforementioned decision threshold, the source and all these relays cooperatively send messages together to the destination to accomplish perfect SDF transmission. Otherwise, all relays are frozen and the messages are directly transmitted through the S-D link. If it fails anyway, a retransmission is subsequently tried in the next transmission cycle. In addition, a polar code for fading channels is designed and adaptively adjusted to a proper code rate according to channel quality to attain good bit error rate (BER) performance. Simulation results show that the proposed scheme achieves about 0.9 and 0.5 dB gain at BER of

10^{- 4}

, respectively, in multi-relay cooperative communications with multi-path fading channels compared with those of non-cooperation and existing polar coded cooperation channels. Therefore, the proposed polar coded SDF (PCSDF) scheme can improve both the BER and the outage probability (OP) performance in multi-relay cooperative systems, making it quite suitable for heterogeneous network applications in cooperative satellite IoT systems involving sixth-generation (6G) communications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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12 pages, 2061 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Matching-Based Resource Allocation for Satellite–Ground Network

by Huixia Ding, Sicheng Zhu, Sachula Meng, Jinxia Han, Heng Liu, Miao Wang, Jiayan Liu, Peng Qin and Xiongwen Zhao

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8436; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218436 - 2 Nov 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2336

Abstract

With the vigorous development of information and communication technology, mobile internet has undergone tremendous changes. How to achieve global coverage of the network has become the primary problem to be solved. GEO satellites and LEO satellites, as important components of the satellite–ground network, [...] Read more.

With the vigorous development of information and communication technology, mobile internet has undergone tremendous changes. How to achieve global coverage of the network has become the primary problem to be solved. GEO satellites and LEO satellites, as important components of the satellite–ground network, can offer service for hotspots or distant regions where ground-based base stations’ coverage is limited. Therefore, we build a satellite–ground network model, which transforms the satellite–ground network resource allocation problem into a matching issue between GEO satellites, LEO satellites, and users. A GEO satellite provides data backhaul for users, and a LEO satellite provides data transmission services according to users’ requests. It is important to consider the relationships between all entities and establish a distributed scheme, so we propose a three-sided cyclic matching algorithm. It is confirmed by a large number of simulation experiments that the method suggested in this research is better than the conventional algorithm in terms of average delay, satellite revenue, and number of users served. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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20 pages, 5217 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Load Balancing Scheme for Satellite IoT Networks Based on Spatial–Temporal Distribution of Users and Advanced Genetic Algorithms

by Wenliang Lin, Zewen Dong, Ke Wang, Dongdong Wang, Yaohua Deng, Yicheng Liao, Yang Liu, Da Wan, Bingyu Xu and Genan Wu

Sensors 2022, 22(20), 7930; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22207930 - 18 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2147

Abstract

Satellite IoT networks (S-IoT-N), which have been a hot issue regarding the next generation of communication, are quite important for the coming era of digital twins and the metaverse because of their performance in sensing and monitoring anywhere, anytime, and anyway, in more [...] Read more.

Satellite IoT networks (S-IoT-N), which have been a hot issue regarding the next generation of communication, are quite important for the coming era of digital twins and the metaverse because of their performance in sensing and monitoring anywhere, anytime, and anyway, in more dimensions. However, this will cause communication links to face greater traffic loads. Satellite internet networks (SIN) are considered the most possible evolution road, possessing characteristics of many satellites, such as low earth orbit (LEO), the Ku/Ka frequency, and a high data rate. Existing research on load balancing schemes for satellite networks cannot solve the problems of low efficiency under conditions of extremely non-uniform distribution of users (DoU) and dynamic density variances. Therefore, this paper proposes a novel load balancing scheme of adjacent beams for S-IoT-N based on the modeling of spatial–temporal DoU and advanced GA. In our scheme, the PDF of the DoU in the direction of movement of the SSP’s trajectory was modeled first, which provided a multi-directional constraint for the non-uniform distribution of users in S-IoT-N. Fully considering the prior periodicity of satellite movement and the similarity of DoU in different areas, we proposed an adaptive inheritance iteration to optimize the crossover factor and mutation factor for GA for the first time. Based on the proposed improved GA, we obtained the optimal scheme of load balancing under the conditions of the adaptation from the local balancing scheme to global balancing, and a selection of Ser-Beams to access. Finally, the simulations show that the proposed method can improve the average throughput by 3% under specific conditions and improve processing efficiency by 30% on average. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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10 pages, 5676 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Security Performance Analysis of LEO Satellite Constellation Networks under DDoS Attack

by Yan Zhang, Yong Wang, Yihua Hu, Zhi Lin, Yadi Zhai, Lei Wang, Qingsong Zhao, Kang Wen and Linshuang Kang

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7286; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197286 - 26 Sep 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3604

Abstract

Low Earth orbit satellite constellation networks (LSCNs) have attracted significant attention around the world due to their great advantages of low latency and wide coverage, but they also bring new challenges to network security. Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are considered one [...] Read more.

Low Earth orbit satellite constellation networks (LSCNs) have attracted significant attention around the world due to their great advantages of low latency and wide coverage, but they also bring new challenges to network security. Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are considered one of the most threatening attack methods in the field of Internet security. In this paper, a space-time graph model is built to identify the key nodes in LSCNs, and a DDoS attack is adopted as the main means to attack the key nodes. The scenarios of two-satellite-key-node and multi-satellite-key-node attacks are considered, and their security performance against DDoS attacks is also analyzed. The simulation results show that the transmission path of key satellite nodes will change rapidly after being attacked, and the average end-to-end delay and packet loss are linearly related to the number of key-node attacks. This work provides a comprehensive analysis of the security performance of LSCNs under a DDoS attack and theoretical support for future research on anti-DDoS attack strategies for LSCNs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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19 pages, 741 KiB

Open AccessArticle

JDAPCOO: Resource Scheduling and Energy Efficiency Optimization in 5G and Satellite Converged Networks for Power Transmission and Distribution Scenarios

by Sachula Meng, Sicheng Zhu, Zhihui Wang, Ruibing Zhang, Jinxia Han, Jiayan Liu, Haoran Sun, Peng Qin and Xiongwen Zhao

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 7085; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22187085 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2134

Abstract

Along with the continuous revolution of energy production and energy consumption structures, the information data of smart grids have exploded, and effective solutions are urgently needed to solve the problem of power devices resource scheduling and energy efficiency optimization. In this paper, we [...] Read more.

Along with the continuous revolution of energy production and energy consumption structures, the information data of smart grids have exploded, and effective solutions are urgently needed to solve the problem of power devices resource scheduling and energy efficiency optimization. In this paper, we propose a fifth generation (5G) and satellite converged network architecture for power transmission and distribution scenarios, where power transmission and distribution devices (PDs) can choose to forward power data to a cloud server data center via ground networks or space-based networks for power grid regulation and control. We propose a Joint Device Association and Power Control Online Optimization (JDAPCOO) algorithm to maximize the long-term system energy efficiency while guaranteeing the minimum transmission rate requirement of PDs. Since the formulated issue is a mixed integer nonconvex optimization problem with high complexity, we decompose the original problem into two subproblems, i.e., device association and power control, which are solved using a genetic algorithm and improved simulated annealing algorithm, respectively. Numerical simulation results show that when the number of PDs is 50, the proposed algorithm can improve the system energy efficiency by 105%, 545.05% and 835.26%, respectively, compared with the equal power allocation algorithm, random power allocation algorithm and random device association algorithm. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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26 pages, 6443 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Enhanced Communications on Satellite-Based IoT Systems to Support Maritime Transportation Services

by Victor Monzon Baeza, Flor Ortiz, Samuel Herrero Garcia and Eva Lagunas

Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6450; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22176450 - 26 Aug 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3871

Abstract

Maritime transport has become important due to its ability to internationally unite all continents. In turn, during the last two years, we have observed that the increase of consumer goods has resulted in global shipping deadlocks. In addition, the future goes through the [...] Read more.

Maritime transport has become important due to its ability to internationally unite all continents. In turn, during the last two years, we have observed that the increase of consumer goods has resulted in global shipping deadlocks. In addition, the future goes through the role of ports and efficiency in maritime transport to decarbonize its impact on the environment. In order to improve the economy and people’s lives, in this work, we propose to enhance services offered in maritime logistics. To do this, a communications system is designed on the deck of ships to transmit data through a constellation of satellites using interconnected smart devices based on IoT. Among the services, we highlight the monitoring and tracking of refrigerated containers, the transmission of geolocation data from Global Positioning System (GPS), and security through the Automatic Identification System (AIS). This information will be used for a fleet of ships to make better decisions and help guarantee the status of the cargo and maritime safety on the routes. The system design, network dimensioning, and a communications protocol for decision-making will be presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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20 pages, 772 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Progressive Pitch for OneWeb Constellation with Seamless Coverage

by Cheng Zou, Haiwang Wang, Jiachao Chang, Fengwei Shao, Lin Shang and Guotong Li

Sensors 2022, 22(16), 6302; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166302 - 22 Aug 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3023

Abstract

Large-scale broadband low earth orbit (LEO) satellite systems have become a possibility due to decreased launch costs and rapidly evolving technology. Preventing huge LEO satellite constellations from interfering with the geostationary earth orbit (GSO) satellite system, progressive pitch is a technique to avoid [...] Read more.

Large-scale broadband low earth orbit (LEO) satellite systems have become a possibility due to decreased launch costs and rapidly evolving technology. Preventing huge LEO satellite constellations from interfering with the geostationary earth orbit (GSO) satellite system, progressive pitch is a technique to avoid interference with the GSO satellite system that allows the LEO satellite system to maintain a certain angle of separation from the GSO satellite system. Aside from interference avoidance, there is also a need to ensure seamless coverage of the LEO constellation and to optimize the overall transmission capacity of the LEO satellite as much as possible, making it extremely complex to design an effective progressive pitch plan. This paper models an inline interference event and seamless coverage and builds an optimization problem by maximizing transmission capacity. This paper reformulates the problem and designs a genetic algorithm to solve it. From the simulation results, the strategy can avoid harmful interference to the GSO satellite system and ensure the seamless coverage of the LEO constellation, and the satellite transmission capacity is also maximized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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27 pages, 80347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flood Hazard Assessment and Mapping: A Case Study from Australia’s Hawkesbury-Nepean Catchment

by Matthew Kelly and Yuriy Kuleshov

Sensors 2022, 22(16), 6251; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166251 - 19 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3660

Abstract

Floods are among the costliest natural hazards, in Australia and globally. In this study, we used an indicator-based method to assess flood hazard risk in Australia’s Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment (HNC). Australian flood risk assessments are typically spatially constrained through the common use of resource-intensive [...] Read more.

Floods are among the costliest natural hazards, in Australia and globally. In this study, we used an indicator-based method to assess flood hazard risk in Australia’s Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment (HNC). Australian flood risk assessments are typically spatially constrained through the common use of resource-intensive flood modelling. The large spatial scale of this study area is the primary element of novelty in this research. The indicators of maximum 3-day precipitation (M3DP), distance to river—elevation weighted (DREW), and soil moisture (SM) were used to create the final Flood Hazard Index (FHI). The 17–26 March 2021 flood event in the HNC was used as a case study. It was found that almost 85% of the HNC was classified by the FHI at ‘severe’ or ‘extreme’ level, illustrating the extremity of the studied event. The urbanised floodplain area in the central-east of the HNC had the highest FHI values. Conversely, regions along the western border of the catchment had the lowest flood hazard risk. The DREW indicator strongly correlated with the FHI. The M3DP indicator displayed strong trends of extreme rainfall totals increasing towards the eastern catchment border. The SM indicator was highly variable, but featured extreme values in conservation areas of the HNC. This study introduces a method of large-scale proxy flood hazard assessment that is novel in an Australian context. A proof-of-concept methodology of flood hazard assessment developed for the HNC is replicable and could be applied to other flood-prone areas elsewhere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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18 pages, 2058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual Stream Transmission and Downlink Power Control for Multiple LEO Satellites-Assisted IoT Networks

by Bingyu Xu, Xiayu Li, Yujuan Ma, Xing Xin and Michel Kadoch

Sensors 2022, 22(16), 6050; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166050 - 12 Aug 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2403

Abstract

The multi-satellites cooperative transmission can effectively increase the data rate that can be achieved by internet of things (IoT) terminals. However, the dynamic characteristics brought by low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites will seriously decrease the data rate and make the data rate fluctuate. [...] Read more.

The multi-satellites cooperative transmission can effectively increase the data rate that can be achieved by internet of things (IoT) terminals. However, the dynamic characteristics brought by low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites will seriously decrease the data rate and make the data rate fluctuate. In this paper, dual-stream transmission and downlink power control for multiple LEO satellites-assisted IoT networks are investigated. To mitigate the effects of the frequency offset caused by different LEO satellites, a multi-satellites synchronization scheme is proposed. Then, different power control schemes are given to resist the data rate fluctuation during the transmission. The simulation results show that the proposed schemes can effectively compensate for the varied frequency offset and keep the data rate stable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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16 pages, 2703 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Adaptive Access Selection Algorithm for Large-Scale Satellite Networks Based on Dynamic Domain

by Gaosai Liu, Xinglong Jiang, Huawang Li, Zhenhua Zhang, Siyue Sun and Guang Liang

Sensors 2022, 22(16), 5995; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22165995 - 11 Aug 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2226

Abstract

The traditional satellite access selection algorithm, which is used in large-scale satellite networks, has some disadvantages, such as frequent link switching, high interrupt probability, and unable to adapt to a dynamic environment. According to the periodicity of the large-scale satellite network and the [...] Read more.

The traditional satellite access selection algorithm, which is used in large-scale satellite networks, has some disadvantages, such as frequent link switching, high interrupt probability, and unable to adapt to a dynamic environment. According to the periodicity of the large-scale satellite network and the prior knowledge provided by acknowledgment packages, a dynamic domain-based adaptive access algorithm (DAA) is proposed in this paper. Firstly, this algorithm divides the large-scale satellite network into different domains according to the minimum elevation angle of the Earth station (ES) and the predictable characteristics of the trajectory of the satellite. Then, the ES selects the access satellites according to the relationship between the traffic volume and the satellites’ coverage time. Finally, the ES selects the backup access satellite based on the satellites’ coverage time, the traffic volume of the ES, satellite status provided by prior knowledge, and other information. When the access satellite cannot satisfy the communication demand, the ES adaptively switches the earth-satellite link to the backup access satellite. The ES first choice of access satellite does not require interaction with the satellites, reducing the consumption of communication resources. The selection strategy of backup access satellite and the concept of virtual destination address proposed in this paper can reduce the routing overhead after switching. Through theoretical analysis and simulation results in the StarLink constellation, it is proved that this paper improves the coverage time utilization of accessing satellites and reduces the switching probability compared with the traditional access algorithm, which is more suitable for ES to access large-scale satellite networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

23 pages, 3975 KiB

Open AccessReview

Deep Learning Methods for Space Situational Awareness in Mega-Constellations Satellite-Based Internet of Things Networks

by Federica Massimi, Pasquale Ferrara and Francesco Benedetto

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010124 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8905

Abstract

Artificial Intelligence of things (AIoT) is the combination of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies and the Internet of Things (IoT) infrastructure. AI deals with the devices’ learning process to acquire knowledge from data and experience, while IoT concerns devices interacting with each other using [...] Read more.

Artificial Intelligence of things (AIoT) is the combination of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies and the Internet of Things (IoT) infrastructure. AI deals with the devices’ learning process to acquire knowledge from data and experience, while IoT concerns devices interacting with each other using the Internet. AIoT has been proven to be a very effective paradigm for several existing applications as well as for new areas, especially in the field of satellite communication systems with mega-constellations. When AIoT meets space communications efficiently, we have interesting uses of AI for Satellite IoT (SIoT). In fact, the number of space debris is continuously increasing as well as the risk of space collisions, and this poses a significant threat to the sustainability and safety of space operations that must be carefully and efficiently addressed to avoid critical damage to the SIoT networks. This paper aims to provide a systematic survey of the state of the art, challenges, and perspectives on the use of deep learning methods for space situational awareness (SSA) object detection and classification. The contributions of this paper can be summarized as follows: (i) we outline using AI algorithms, and in particular, deep learning (DL) methods, the possibility of identifying the nature/type of spatial objects by processing signals from radars; (ii) we present a comprehensive taxonomy of DL-based methods applied to SSA object detection and classification, as well as their characteristics, and implementation issues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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23 pages, 4762 KiB

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Free-Space Optical Data Receivers with Avalanche Detectors for Satellite Downlinks Regarding Background Light

by Dirk Giggenbach

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 6773; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22186773 - 7 Sep 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3007

Abstract

Data receiving frontends using avalanche photodiodes are used in optical free-space communications for their effective sensitivity, large detection area, and uncomplex operation. Precise control of the high voltage necessary to trigger the avalanche effect inside the photodiode depends on the semiconductor’s excess noise [...] Read more.

Data receiving frontends using avalanche photodiodes are used in optical free-space communications for their effective sensitivity, large detection area, and uncomplex operation. Precise control of the high voltage necessary to trigger the avalanche effect inside the photodiode depends on the semiconductor’s excess noise factor, temperature, received signal power, background light, and also the subsequent thermal noise behavior of the transimpedance amplifier. Several prerequisites must be regarded and are explained in this document. We focus on the application of using avalanche photodiodes as data receivers for the on/off-keying of modulated bit streams with a 50% duty cycle. Also, experimental verification of the performance of the receiver with background light is demonstrated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Satellite Based IoT Networks for Emerging Applications)

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