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12 pages, 10553 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Wafer Type Ion Energy Monitoring Sensor for Plasma Diagnosis

by Chansu Han, Yoonsung Koo, Jaehwan Kim, Kwangwook Choi and Sangjeen Hong

Sensors 2023, 23(5), 2410; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23052410 - 22 Feb 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3842

Abstract

We propose a wafer-type ion energy monitoring sensor (IEMS) that can measure the spatially resolved distribution of ion energy over the 150 mm plasma chamber for the in situ monitoring of the semiconductor fabrication process. The IEMS can directly be applied to the [...] Read more.

We propose a wafer-type ion energy monitoring sensor (IEMS) that can measure the spatially resolved distribution of ion energy over the 150 mm plasma chamber for the in situ monitoring of the semiconductor fabrication process. The IEMS can directly be applied to the semiconductor chip production equipment without further modification of the automated wafer handling system. Thus, it can be adopted as an in situ data acquisition platform for plasma characterization inside the process chamber. To achieve ion energy measurement on the wafer-type sensor, the injected ion flux energy from the plasma sheath was converted into the induced currents on each electrode over the wafer-type sensor, and the generated currents from the ion injection were compared along the position of electrodes. The IEMS operates without problems in the plasma environment and has the same trends as the result predicted through the equation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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14 pages, 3622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Generative Adversarial Network-Based Fault Detection in Semiconductor Equipment with Class-Imbalanced Data

by Jeong Eun Choi, Da Hoon Seol, Chan Young Kim and Sang Jeen Hong

Sensors 2023, 23(4), 1889; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23041889 - 8 Feb 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3143

Abstract

This research proposes an application of generative adversarial networks (GANs) to solve the class imbalance problem in the fault detection and classification study of a plasma etching process. Small changes in the equipment part condition of the plasma equipment may cause an equipment [...] Read more.

This research proposes an application of generative adversarial networks (GANs) to solve the class imbalance problem in the fault detection and classification study of a plasma etching process. Small changes in the equipment part condition of the plasma equipment may cause an equipment fault, resulting in a process anomaly. Thus, fault detection in the semiconductor process is essential for success in advanced process control. Two datasets that assume faults of the mass flow controller (MFC) in equipment components were acquired using optical emission spectroscopy (OES) in the plasma etching process of a silicon trench: The abnormal process changed by the MFC is assumed to be faults, and the minority class of Case 1 is the normal class, and that of Case 2 is the abnormal class. In each case, additional minority class data were generated using GANs to compensate for the degradation of model training due to class-imbalanced data. Comparisons of five existing fault detection algorithms with the augmented datasets showed improved modeling performances. Generating a dataset for the minority group using GANs is beneficial for class imbalance problems of OES datasets in fault detection for the semiconductor plasma equipment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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13 pages, 4272 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leak Localization on Cylinder Tank Bottom Using Acoustic Emission

by Tuan-Khai Nguyen, Zahoor Ahmad and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2023, 23(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010027 - 20 Dec 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2047

Abstract

In this study, a scheme for leak localization on a cylinder tank bottom using acoustic emission (AE) is proposed. This approach provides a means of early failure detection, thus reducing financial damage and hazards to the environment and users. The scheme starts with [...] Read more.

In this study, a scheme for leak localization on a cylinder tank bottom using acoustic emission (AE) is proposed. This approach provides a means of early failure detection, thus reducing financial damage and hazards to the environment and users. The scheme starts with the hit detection process using a constant false alarm rate (CFAR) and a fixed thresholding method for a time of arrival (TOA) and an end-time determination. The detected hits are then investigated to group those originating from the same AE source together by enforcing an event definition and a similarity score. Afterwards, these newly grouped hits are processed by a time difference of arrival (TDOA) to find the locations of the events. Since the locations of the events alone do not pinpoint the leak location, a data density analysis using a Voronoi diagram is employed to find the area with the highest possibility of a leak’s existence. The proposed method was validated using the Hsu-Nielsen test on a cylinder tank bottom under a one-failed-sensor scenario, which returned a highly accurate result across multiple test locations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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16 pages, 2768 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Computer-Vision Approach Assisted by 2D-Wavelet Transform and Locality Sensitive Discriminant Analysis for Concrete Crack Detection

by Vahidreza Gharehbaghi, Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi, T. Y. Yang, Mohammad Noori and Denise-Penelope N. Kontoni

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8986; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228986 - 20 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2083

Abstract

This study proposes FastCrackNet, a computationally efficient crack-detection approach. Instead of a computationally costly convolutional neural network (CNN), this technique uses an effective, fully connected network, which is coupled with a 2D-wavelet image transform for analyzing and a locality sensitive discriminant analysis (LSDA) [...] Read more.

This study proposes FastCrackNet, a computationally efficient crack-detection approach. Instead of a computationally costly convolutional neural network (CNN), this technique uses an effective, fully connected network, which is coupled with a 2D-wavelet image transform for analyzing and a locality sensitive discriminant analysis (LSDA) for reducing the number of features. The algorithm described here is used to detect tiny concrete cracks in two noisy adverse conditions and image shadows. By combining wavelet-based feature extraction, feature reduction, and a rapid classifier based on deep learning, this technique surpasses other image classifiers in terms of speed, performance, and resilience. In order to evaluate the accuracy and speed of FastCrackNet, two prominent pre-trained CNN architectures, namely GoogleNet and Xception, are employed. Findings reveal that FastCrackNet has better speed and accuracy than the other models. This study establishes performance and computational thresholds for classifying photos in difficult conditions. In terms of classification efficiency, FastCrackNet outperformed GoogleNet and the Xception model by more than 60 and 80 times, respectively. Furthermore, FastCrackNet’s dependability was proved by its robustness and stability in the presence of uncertainties produced by network characteristics and input images, such as input image size, batch size, and input image dimensions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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21 pages, 5119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Classification Framework of the Bearing Faults of an Induction Motor Using Wavelet Scattering Transform-Based Features

by Rafia Nishat Toma, Yangde Gao, Farzin Piltan, Kichang Im, Dongkoo Shon, Tae Hyun Yoon, Dae-Seung Yoo and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8958; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228958 - 19 Nov 2022

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 2643

Abstract

In the machine learning and data science pipelines, feature extraction is considered the most crucial component according to researchers, where generating a discriminative feature matrix is the utmost challenging task to achieve high classification accuracy. Generally, the classical feature extraction techniques are sensitive [...] Read more.

In the machine learning and data science pipelines, feature extraction is considered the most crucial component according to researchers, where generating a discriminative feature matrix is the utmost challenging task to achieve high classification accuracy. Generally, the classical feature extraction techniques are sensitive to the noisy component of the signal and need more time for training. To deal with these issues, a comparatively new feature extraction technique, referred to as a wavelet scattering transform (WST) is utilized, and incorporated with ML classifiers to design a framework for bearing fault classification in this paper. The WST is a knowledge-based technique, and the structure is similar to the convolution neural network. This technique provides low-variance features of real-valued signals, which are usually necessary for classification tasks. These signals are resistant to signal deformation and preserve information at high frequencies. The current signal data from a publicly available dataset for three different bearing conditions are considered. By combining the scattering path coefficients, the decomposition coefficients from the 0th and 1st layers are considered as features. The experimental results demonstrate that WST-based features, when used with ensemble ML algorithms, could achieve more than 99% classification accuracy. The performance of ANN models with these features is similar. This work exhibits that utilizing WST coefficients for the motor current signal as features can improve the bearing fault classification accuracy when compared to other feature extraction approaches such as empirical wavelet transform (EWT), information fusion (IF), and wavelet packet decomposition (WPD). Thus, our proposed approach can be considered as an effective classification method for the fault diagnosis of rotating machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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25 pages, 6275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microsatellite Uncertainty Control Using Deterministic Artificial Intelligence

by Evan Wilt and Timothy Sands

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8723; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228723 - 11 Nov 2022

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2243

Abstract

This manuscript explores the applications of deterministic artificial intelligence (DAI) in a space environment in response to unknown sensor noise and sudden changes in craft physical parameters. The current state of the art literature has proposed the method, but only ideal environments, and [...] Read more.

This manuscript explores the applications of deterministic artificial intelligence (DAI) in a space environment in response to unknown sensor noise and sudden changes in craft physical parameters. The current state of the art literature has proposed the method, but only ideal environments, and accordingly this article addresses the literature gaps by critically evaluating efficacy in the face of unaddressed parametric uncertainties. We compare an idealized combined non-linear feedforward (FFD) and linearized feedback (FB) control scheme with an altered feedforward, feedback, and deterministic artificial intelligence scheme in the presence of simulated craft damage and environmental disturbances. Mean trajectory tracking error was improved over 91%, while the standard deviation was improved over 97% whilst improving (reducing) control effort by 13%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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17 pages, 5965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Machine Learning Architecture Replacing Heavy Instrumented Laboratory Tests: In Application to the Pullout Capacity of Geosynthetic Reinforced Soils

by Tabish Ali, Waseem Haider, Nazakat Ali and Muhammad Aslam

Sensors 2022, 22(22), 8699; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22228699 - 10 Nov 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2762

Abstract

For economical and sustainable benefits, conventional retaining walls are being replaced by geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS). However, for safety and quality assurance purposes, prior tests of pullout capacities of these materials need to be performed. Conventionally, these tests are conducted in a laboratory [...] Read more.

For economical and sustainable benefits, conventional retaining walls are being replaced by geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS). However, for safety and quality assurance purposes, prior tests of pullout capacities of these materials need to be performed. Conventionally, these tests are conducted in a laboratory with heavy instruments. These tests are time-consuming, require hard labor, are prone to error, and are expensive as a special pullout machine is required to perform the tests and acquire the data by using a lot of sensors and data loggers. This paper proposes a data-driven machine learning architecture (MLA) to predict the pullout capacity of GRS in a diverse environment. The results from MLA are compared with actual laboratory pullout capacity tests. Various input variables are considered for training and testing the neural network. These input parameters include the soil physical conditions based on water content and external loading applied. The soil used is a locally available weathered granite soil. The input data included normal stress, soil saturation, displacement, and soil unit weight whereas the output data contains information about the pullout strength. The data used was obtained from an actual pullout capacity test performed in the laboratory. The laboratory test is performed according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard D 6706-01 with little modification. This research shows that by using machine learning, the same pullout resistance of a geosynthetic reinforced soil can be achieved as in laboratory testing, thus saving a lot of time, effort, and money. Feedforward backpropagation neural networks with a different number of neurons, algorithms, and hidden layers have been examined. The comparison of the Bayesian regularization learning algorithm with two hidden layers and 12 neurons each showed the minimum mean square error (MSE) of 3.02 × 10⁻⁵ for both training and testing. The maximum coefficient of regression (R) for the testing set is 0.999 and the training set is 0.999 for the prediction interval of 99%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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24 pages, 5716 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Injection with Multiple Fault Patterns for Experimental Evaluation of Demand-Controlled Ventilation and Heating Systems

by Bahareh Kiamanesh, Ali Behravan and Roman Obermaisser

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8180; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218180 - 25 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1986

Abstract

Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems are large-scale distributed systems that can be subject to multiple faults affecting the electronics, sensors, and actuators, potentially causing high energy consumption, occupant discomfort, degraded indoor air quality and risk to critical infrastructure. Fault injection (FI) is [...] Read more.

Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems are large-scale distributed systems that can be subject to multiple faults affecting the electronics, sensors, and actuators, potentially causing high energy consumption, occupant discomfort, degraded indoor air quality and risk to critical infrastructure. Fault injection (FI) is an effective experimental method for the validation and dependability evaluation of such HVAC systems. Today’s FI frameworks for HVAC systems are still based on a single fault hypothesis and do not provide insights into dependability in the case of multiple faults. Therefore, this paper presents modeling patterns of numerous faults in HVAC systems based on data from field failure rates and maintenance records. The extended FI framework supports the injection of multiple faults with exact control of the timing, locality, and values in fault-injection vectors. A multi-dimensional fault model is defined, including the probability of the occurrence of different sensor and actuator faults. Comprehensive experimental results provide insights into the system’s behavior for concrete example scenarios using patterns of multiple faults. The experimental results serve as a quantitative evaluation of key performance indicators (KPI) such as energy efficiency, air quality, and thermal comfort. For example, combining a CO₂ sensor fault with a heater actuator fault increased energy consumption by more than 70%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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13 pages, 2660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

K-Means Clustering and Bidirectional Long- and Short-Term Neural Networks for Predicting Performance Degradation Trends of Built-In Relays in Meters

by Jiayan Chen, Chaochun Zhong, Jing Chen, Yuanxun Han, Juan Zhou and Limin Wang

Sensors 2022, 22(21), 8149; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218149 - 25 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1699

Abstract

The built-in relay in a meter is a key control component of a smart meter, and its reliability determines whether the user can use electricity safely and smoothly. In this paper, the degradation characteristics of the arc-burning energy are enhanced by the method [...] Read more.

The built-in relay in a meter is a key control component of a smart meter, and its reliability determines whether the user can use electricity safely and smoothly. In this paper, the degradation characteristics of the arc-burning energy are enhanced by the method of K-means clustering to replace degradation data, such as the overtravel time, release time, and other data. In existing methods, the meter needs to be disassembled to describe the degradation trend of the meter relay. The proposed method is combined with a bidirectional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM) neural network to predict the degradation trend of the relay’s performance. In this paper, K-means clustering is used to enhance the extraction of arc energy data features, and then the arc energy data obtained from the reliability lifetime test is assessed to predict the degradation trend of the meter relay by means of a bidirectional LSTM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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21 pages, 8725 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Image-Based Diagnosis Method Using Improved DCGAN for Rotating Machinery

by Yangde Gao, Farzin Piltan and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7534; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197534 - 4 Oct 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2216

Abstract

Rotating machinery plays an important role in industrial systems, and faults in the machinery may damage the system health. A novel image-based diagnosis method using improved deep convolutional generative adversarial networks (DCGAN) is proposed for the feature recognition and fault classification of rotating [...] Read more.

Rotating machinery plays an important role in industrial systems, and faults in the machinery may damage the system health. A novel image-based diagnosis method using improved deep convolutional generative adversarial networks (DCGAN) is proposed for the feature recognition and fault classification of rotating machinery. First, vibration signal data from the rotating machinery is transformed into time–frequency feature 2-D image data by a continuous wavelet transform and used for fault classification with the neural network method. The adaptive deep convolution neural network (ADCNN) is then combined with the generative adversarial networks (GANs) to improve the performance of the feature self-learning ability from input data. Compared with different fault diagnosis methods, the proposed method has better performance for image feature classification in rotating machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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14 pages, 3929 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of DSLR and Sonic Cameras to Detect and Locate High-Voltage Corona Discharges

by Jordi-Roger Riba and Pau Bas-Calopa

Sensors 2022, 22(19), 7250; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22197250 - 24 Sep 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3597

Abstract

Corona discharges are a concern in high-voltage applications. It is of utmost importance to detect and locate the discharges at an early stage using simple methods for this purpose. This paper evaluates and compares the sensitivity of two methods for detecting and locating [...] Read more.

Corona discharges are a concern in high-voltage applications. It is of utmost importance to detect and locate the discharges at an early stage using simple methods for this purpose. This paper evaluates and compares the sensitivity of two methods for detecting and locating the source of discharges, which are based on a digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera and a portable wideband sonic camera incorporating a matrix of micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) microphones. Both cameras can generate an image of the studied area where the discharge sites are identified. The study is carried out with different electrode geometries, 50 Hz alternating current (ac) and positive and negative direct current (dc) supplies, and the effect of the distance between the sensor and the discharge sites is also analyzed. The presented results show that the sonic camera enables fast, simple, and sensitive detection and localization of the source of corona discharges even at a very early stage in daylight conditions, regardless of the type of power supply, that is, ac or positive/negative dc, and at distance of several meters from the discharge source. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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15 pages, 4403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Centrifugal Pump Fault Diagnosis Framework Based on Supervised Contrastive Learning

by Sajjad Ahmad, Zahoor Ahmad and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(17), 6448; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22176448 - 26 Aug 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2911

Abstract

A novel intelligent centrifugal pump (CP) fault diagnosis method is proposed in this paper. The method is based on the contrast in vibration data obtained from a centrifugal pump (CP) under several operating conditions. The vibration signals data obtained from a CP are [...] Read more.

A novel intelligent centrifugal pump (CP) fault diagnosis method is proposed in this paper. The method is based on the contrast in vibration data obtained from a centrifugal pump (CP) under several operating conditions. The vibration signals data obtained from a CP are non-stationary because of the impulses caused by different faults; thus, traditional time domain and frequency domain analyses such as fast Fourier transform and Walsh transform are not the best option to pre-process the non-stationary signals. First, to visualize the fault-related impulses in vibration data, we computed the kurtogram images of time series vibration sequences. To extract the discriminant features related to faults from the kurtogram images, we used a deep learning tool convolutional encoder (CE) with a supervised contrastive loss. The supervised contrastive loss pulls together samples belonging to the same class, while pushing apart samples belonging to a different class. The convolutional encoder was pretrained on the kurtograms with the supervised contrastive loss to infer the contrasting features belonging to different CP data classes. After pretraining with the supervised contrastive loss, the learned representations of the convolutional encoder were kept as obtained, and a linear classifier was trained above the frozen convolutional encoder, which completed the fault identification. The proposed model was validated with data collected from a real industrial testbed, yielding a high classification accuracy of 99.1% and an error of less than 1%. Furthermore, to prove the proposed model robust, it was validated on CP data with 3.0 and 3.5 bar inlet pressure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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23 pages, 7675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Bearing Fault Classification Framework Based on Image Encoding Techniques and a Convolutional Neural Network under Different Operating Conditions

by Rafia Nishat Toma, Farzin Piltan, Kichang Im, Dongkoo Shon, Tae Hyun Yoon, Dae-Seung Yoo and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(13), 4881; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22134881 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2934

Abstract

Diagnostics of mechanical problems in manufacturing systems are essential to maintaining safety and minimizing expenditures. In this study, an intelligent fault classification model that combines a signal-to-image encoding technique and a convolution neural network (CNN) with the motor-current signal is proposed to classify [...] Read more.

Diagnostics of mechanical problems in manufacturing systems are essential to maintaining safety and minimizing expenditures. In this study, an intelligent fault classification model that combines a signal-to-image encoding technique and a convolution neural network (CNN) with the motor-current signal is proposed to classify bearing faults. In the beginning, we split the dataset into four parts, considering the operating conditions. Then, the original signal is segmented into multiple samples, and we apply the Gramian angular field (GAF) algorithm on each sample to generate two-dimensional (2-D) images, which also converts the time-series signals into polar coordinates. The image conversion technique eliminates the requirement of manual feature extraction and creates a distinct pattern for individual fault signatures. Finally, the resultant image dataset is used to design and train a 2-layer deep CNN model that can extract high-level features from multiple images to classify fault conditions. For all the experiments that were conducted on different operating conditions, the proposed method shows a high classification accuracy of more than 99% and proves that the GAF can efficiently preserve the fault characteristics from the current signal. Three built-in CNN structures were also applied to classify the images, but the simple structure of a 2-layer CNN proved to be sufficient in terms of classification results and computational time. Finally, we compare the experimental results from the proposed diagnostic framework with some state-of-the-art diagnostic techniques and previously published works to validate its superiority under inconsistent working conditions. The results verify that the proposed method based on motor-current signal analysis is a good approach for bearing fault classification in terms of classification accuracy and other evaluation parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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24 pages, 7995 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Gearbox Fault Identification Model Using an Adaptive Noise Canceling Technique, Heterogeneous Feature Extraction, and Distance Ratio Principal Component Analysis

by Cong Dai Nguyen, Cheol Hong Kim and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(11), 4091; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22114091 - 27 May 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2385

Abstract

Using an adaptive noise canceling technique (ANCT) and distance ratio principal component analysis (DRPCA), this paper proposes a new fault diagnostic model for multi-degree tooth-cut failures (MTCF) in a gearbox operating at inconsistent speeds. To account for background and disturbance noise in the [...] Read more.

Using an adaptive noise canceling technique (ANCT) and distance ratio principal component analysis (DRPCA), this paper proposes a new fault diagnostic model for multi-degree tooth-cut failures (MTCF) in a gearbox operating at inconsistent speeds. To account for background and disturbance noise in the vibration characteristics of gear failures, the proposed approach employs ANCT in the first stage to optimize vibration signals. The ANCT applies an adaptive denoising technique to each basic frequency segment in the whole frequency response of vibrations. Following that, a novel DRPCA is used to extract the discriminating low-dimensional features. The DRPCA initially determines each feature’s relative proximity to fault categories by computing the average Euclidian distance ratio between similar and dissimilar classes. The most discriminatory features with the lowest dimensions are selected, as determined by principal component analysis (PCA). The new DRPCA is created by combining distance ratio–based feature inspection with PCA. The optimal feature set containing the most discriminative features is then fed to the support vector machine classifier to identify multiple failure categories. The experimental results indicate that the proposed model outperforms the state-of-art approaches and offers the highest identification accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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13 pages, 3384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid Leak Localization Approach Using Acoustic Emission for Industrial Pipelines

by Yangde Gao, Farzin Piltan and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(10), 3963; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22103963 - 23 May 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2669

Abstract

Acoustic emission techniques are widely used to monitor industrial pipelines. Intelligent methods using acoustic emission signals can analyze acoustic waves and provide important information for leak detection and localization. To address safety and protect the operation of industrial pipelines, a novel hybrid approach [...] Read more.

Acoustic emission techniques are widely used to monitor industrial pipelines. Intelligent methods using acoustic emission signals can analyze acoustic waves and provide important information for leak detection and localization. To address safety and protect the operation of industrial pipelines, a novel hybrid approach based on acoustic emission signals is proposed to achieve reliable leak localization. The proposed method employs minimum entropy deconvolution using the maximization kurtosis norm of acoustic emission signals to remove noise and identify important feature signals. In addition, the damping frequency energy based on the dynamic differential equation with damping term is designed to extract important energy information, and a smooth envelope for the feature signals over time is generated. The zero crossing tracks the arrival time via the envelope changes and identifies the time difference of the acoustic waves from the two channels, each of which is installed at the end of a pipeline. Finally, the time data are combined with the velocity data to localize the leak. The proposed approach has better performance than the existing generalized cross-correlation and empirical mode decomposition combined with the generalized cross-correlation methods, providing proper leak localization in the industrial pipeline. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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38 pages, 2509 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fault Diagnostics and Tolerance Analysis of a Microgrid System Using Hamilton–Jacobi–Isaacs Equation and Game Theoretic Estimations in Sliding Mode Observers

by Ebrahim Shahzad, Adnan Umar Khan, Muhammad Iqbal, Fahad Albalawi, Muhammad Attique Khan, Ahmad Saeed and Sherif S. M. Ghoneim

Sensors 2022, 22(4), 1597; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041597 - 18 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2493

Abstract

This paper focuses on robustness and sensitivity analysis for sensor fault diagnosis of a voltage source converter based microgrid model. It uses robust control parameters such as minimum sensitivity parameter

(H -)

, maximum robustness parameter

(H \infty)

, [...] Read more.

This paper focuses on robustness and sensitivity analysis for sensor fault diagnosis of a voltage source converter based microgrid model. It uses robust control parameters such as minimum sensitivity parameter

(H -)

, maximum robustness parameter

(H \infty)

, and compromised both

(H - / H \infty)

, being incorporated in the sliding mode observer theory using the game theoretic saddle point estimation achieved through convex optimization of constrained LMIs. The approach used works in a way that the mentioned robust control parameters are embedded in Hamilton–Jacobi–Isaacs-Equation (HJIE) and are also used to determine the inequality version of HJIE, which is, in terms of the Lyapunov function, faults/disturbances and augmented state/output estimation error as its variables. The stability analysis is also presented by negative definiteness of the same inequality version of HJIE, and additionally, it also gives linear matrix inequalities (LMIs), which are optimized using iterative convex optimization algorithms to give optimal sliding mode observer gains enhanced with robustness to maximal preset values of disturbances and sensitivity to minimal preset values of faults. The enhanced sliding mode observer is used to estimate states, faults, and disturbances using sliding mode observer theory. The optimality of sliding mode observer gains for sensitivity of the observer to minimal faults and robustness to maximal disturbance is a game theoretic saddle point estimation achieved through convex optimization of LMIs. The paper includes results for state estimation errors, faults’ estimation/reconstruction, fault estimation errors, and fault-tolerant-control performance for current and potential transformer faults. The considered faults and disturbances in current and potential transformers are sinusoidal nature composite of magnitude/phase/harmonics at the same time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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15 pages, 3303 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Method for Pipeline Leak Detection Based on Acoustic Imaging and Deep Learning

by Sajjad Ahmad, Zahoor Ahmad, Cheol-Hong Kim and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(4), 1562; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22041562 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 41 | Viewed by 7414

Abstract

This paper proposes a reliable technique for pipeline leak detection using acoustic emission signals. The acoustic emission signal of a pipeline contains leak-related information. However, the noise in the signal often obscures the leak-related information, making traditional acoustic emission features, such as count [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a reliable technique for pipeline leak detection using acoustic emission signals. The acoustic emission signal of a pipeline contains leak-related information. However, the noise in the signal often obscures the leak-related information, making traditional acoustic emission features, such as count and peaks, less effective. To obtain leak-related features, first, acoustic images were obtained from the time series acoustic emission signals using continuous wavelet transform. The acoustic images (AE images) were the wavelet scalograms that represent the time–frequency scales of the acoustic emission signal in the form of an image. The acoustic images carried enough information about the leak, as the leak-related information had a high-energy representation in the scalogram compared to the noise. To extract leak-related discriminant features from the acoustic images, they were provided as input into the convolutional autoencoder and convolutional neural network. The convolutional autoencoder extracts global features, while the convolutional neural network extracts local features. The local features represent changes in the energy at a finer level, whereas the global features are the overall characteristics of the acoustic signal in the acoustic image. The global and local features were merged into a single feature vector. To identify the pipeline leak state, the feature vector was fed into a shallow artificial neural network. The proposed method was validated by utilizing a data set obtained from the industrial pipeline testbed. The proposed algorithm yielded a high classification accuracy in detecting leaks under different leak sizes and fluid pressures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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18 pages, 7562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Transformer Voltages Classification with Acoustic Signal in Various Noisy Environments

by Mintai Kim and Sungju Lee

Sensors 2022, 22(3), 1248; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22031248 - 7 Feb 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2832

Abstract

Checking the stable supply voltage of a power distribution transformer in operation is an important issue to prevent mechanical failure. The acoustic signal of the transformer contains sufficient information to analyze the transformer conditions. However, since transformers are often exposed to a variety [...] Read more.

Checking the stable supply voltage of a power distribution transformer in operation is an important issue to prevent mechanical failure. The acoustic signal of the transformer contains sufficient information to analyze the transformer conditions. However, since transformers are often exposed to a variety of noise environments, acoustic signal-based methods should be designed to be robust against these various noises to provide high accuracy. In this study, we propose a method to classify the over-, normal-, and under-voltage levels supplied to the transformer using the acoustic signal of the transformer operating in various noise environments. The acoustic signal of the transformer was converted into a Mel Spectrogram (MS), and used to classify the voltage levels. The classification model was designed based on the U-Net encoder layers to extract and express the important features from the acoustic signal. The proposed approach was used for its robustness against both the known and unknown noise by using the noise rejection method with U-Net and the ensemble model with three datasets. In the experimental environments, the testbeds were constructed using an oil-immersed power distribution transformer with a capacity of 150 kVA. Based on the experimental results, we confirm that the proposed method can improve the classification accuracy of the voltage levels from 72 to 88 and to 94% (baseline to noise rejection and to noise rejection + ensemble), respectively, in various noisy environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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15 pages, 4756 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Multistage Centrifugal Pump Fault Diagnosis Using Informative Ratio Principal Component Analysis

by Zahoor Ahmad, Tuan-Khai Nguyen, Sajjad Ahmad, Cong Dai Nguyen and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(1), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010179 - 28 Dec 2021

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 3659

Abstract

This study proposes a fault diagnosis method (FD) for multistage centrifugal pumps (MCP) using informative ratio principal component analysis (Ir-PCA). To overcome the interference and background noise in the vibration signatures (VS) of the centrifugal pump, the fault diagnosis method selects the fault-specific [...] Read more.

This study proposes a fault diagnosis method (FD) for multistage centrifugal pumps (MCP) using informative ratio principal component analysis (Ir-PCA). To overcome the interference and background noise in the vibration signatures (VS) of the centrifugal pump, the fault diagnosis method selects the fault-specific frequency band (FSFB) in the first step. Statistical features in time, frequency, and wavelet domains were extracted from the fault-specific frequency band. In the second step, all of the extracted features were combined into a single feature vector called a multi-domain feature pool (MDFP). The multi-domain feature pool results in a larger dimension; furthermore, not all of the features are best for representing the centrifugal pump condition and can affect the condition classification accuracy of the classifier. To obtain discriminant features with low dimensions, this paper introduces a novel informative ratio principal component analysis in the third step. The technique first assesses the feature informativeness towards the fault by calculating the informative ratio between the feature within the class scatteredness and between-class distance. To obtain a discriminant set of features with reduced dimensions, principal component analysis was applied to the features with a high informative ratio. The combination of informative ratio-based feature assessment and principal component analysis forms the novel informative ratio principal component analysis. The new set of discriminant features obtained from the novel technique are then provided to the K-nearest neighbor (K-NN) condition classifier for multistage centrifugal pump condition classification. The proposed method outperformed existing state-of-the-art methods in terms of fault classification accuracy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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21 pages, 5239 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bearing Fault Diagnosis Using Multidomain Fusion-Based Vibration Imaging and Multitask Learning

by Md Junayed Hasan, M. M. Manjurul Islam and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2022, 22(1), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22010056 - 22 Dec 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4533

Abstract

Statistical features extraction from bearing fault signals requires a substantial level of knowledge and domain expertise. Furthermore, existing feature extraction techniques are mostly confined to selective feature extraction methods namely, time-domain, frequency-domain, or time-frequency domain statistical parameters. Vibration signals of bearing fault are [...] Read more.

Statistical features extraction from bearing fault signals requires a substantial level of knowledge and domain expertise. Furthermore, existing feature extraction techniques are mostly confined to selective feature extraction methods namely, time-domain, frequency-domain, or time-frequency domain statistical parameters. Vibration signals of bearing fault are highly non-linear and non-stationary making it cumbersome to extract relevant information for existing methodologies. This process even became more complicated when the bearing operates at variable speeds and load conditions. To address these challenges, this study develops an autonomous diagnostic system that combines signal-to-image transformation techniques for multi-domain information with convolutional neural network (CNN)-aided multitask learning (MTL). To address variable operating conditions, a composite color image is created by fusing information from multi-domains, such as the raw time-domain signal, the spectrum of the time-domain signal, and the envelope spectrum of the time-frequency analysis. This 2-D composite image, named multi-domain fusion-based vibration imaging (MDFVI), is highly effective in generating a unique pattern even with variable speeds and loads. Following that, these MDFVI images are fed to the proposed MTL-based CNN architecture to identify faults in variable speed and health conditions concurrently. The proposed method is tested on two benchmark datasets from the bearing experiment. The experimental results suggested that the proposed method outperformed state-of-the-arts in both datasets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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18 pages, 4018 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on On-Line Detection Method of Transformer Winding Deformation Based on VFTO

by Yanyun Wang, Guoqiong Zhou, Chunping Zeng, Wenbin Zhang, Yanan Ren, Yi Ke, Hequn Chu and Chunguang Suo

Sensors 2021, 21(21), 7386; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217386 - 6 Nov 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2137

Abstract

At present, the detection of transformer winding deformation faults is carried out in an offline state, which requires the transformer to cooperate with the implementation of planned power outages, or it takes place after the sudden failure of the transformer when it is [...] Read more.

At present, the detection of transformer winding deformation faults is carried out in an offline state, which requires the transformer to cooperate with the implementation of planned power outages, or it takes place after the sudden failure of the transformer when it is out of operation. It is difficult to obtain the status information of the windings online in time. Since the transformer will suffer very fast transient overvoltage (VFTO) impact during operation, combined with the principle of the frequency response method, an online detection method of transformer winding deformation based on VFTO is proposed. In order to study the frequency response characteristics of transformer winding under the impact of VFTO, the generation process of VFTO is simulated by simulation software, and the equivalent circuit model of transformer winding before and after deformation is established. The VFTO signal is injected into the transformer circuit model as an excitation source, and the changes of resonant frequencies of frequency response curve under different deformation types and different deformation degrees of winding are analyzed. The simulation results show that the frequency response curves of different winding deformation types are different. Different deformation degrees are simulated by increasing the radial capacitance by 4%, 13%, and 23%, series inductance by 2%, 4%, and 6%, and longitudinal capacitance by 3%, 6%, and 9%, and the change of resonance frequencies can comprehensively reflect the deformation information of winding. At the same time, the tests of different deformation types and deformation degrees of the simulated winding are carried out. The results show that with the deepening of the change degree of the simulated fault inductance value, the frequency response curve shifts to the low-frequency direction, confirming the feasibility of the online detection method of transformer winding deformation based on VFTO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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15 pages, 4347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Hybrid Deep Learning Method for Fault Diagnosis of Rotating Machinery Based on Extended WDCNN and Long Short-Term Memory

by Yangde Gao, Cheol Hong Kim and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2021, 21(19), 6614; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196614 - 4 Oct 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3659

Abstract

Deep learning (DL) plays a very important role in the fault diagnosis of rotating machinery. To enhance the self-learning capacity and improve the intelligent diagnosis accuracy of DL for rotating machinery, a novel hybrid deep learning method (NHDLM) based on Extended Deep Convolutional [...] Read more.

Deep learning (DL) plays a very important role in the fault diagnosis of rotating machinery. To enhance the self-learning capacity and improve the intelligent diagnosis accuracy of DL for rotating machinery, a novel hybrid deep learning method (NHDLM) based on Extended Deep Convolutional Neural Networks with Wide First-layer Kernels (EWDCNN) and long short-term memory (LSTM) is proposed for complex environments. First, the EWDCNN method is presented by extending the convolution layer of WDCNN, which can further improve automatic feature extraction. The LSTM then changes the geometric architecture of the EWDCNN to produce a novel hybrid method (NHDLM), which further improves the performance for feature classification. Compared with CNN, WDCNN, and EWDCNN, the proposed NHDLM method has the greatest performance and identification accuracy for the fault diagnosis of rotating machinery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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34 pages, 48184 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Explainable AI-Based Fault Diagnosis Model for Bearings

by Md Junayed Hasan, Muhammad Sohaib and Jong-Myon Kim

Sensors 2021, 21(12), 4070; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21124070 - 13 Jun 2021

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 5278

Abstract

In this paper, an explainable AI-based fault diagnosis model for bearings is proposed with five stages, i.e., (1) a data preprocessing method based on the Stockwell Transformation Coefficient (STC) is proposed to analyze the vibration signals for variable speed and load conditions, (2) [...] Read more.

In this paper, an explainable AI-based fault diagnosis model for bearings is proposed with five stages, i.e., (1) a data preprocessing method based on the Stockwell Transformation Coefficient (STC) is proposed to analyze the vibration signals for variable speed and load conditions, (2) a statistical feature extraction method is introduced to capture the significance from the invariant pattern of the analyzed data by STC, (3) an explainable feature selection process is proposed by introducing a wrapper-based feature selector—Boruta, (4) a feature filtration method is considered on the top of the feature selector to avoid the multicollinearity problem, and finally, (5) an additive Shapley explanation followed by k-NN is proposed to diagnose and to explain the individual decision of the k-NN classifier for debugging the performance of the diagnosis model. Thus, the idea of explainability is introduced for the first time in the field of bearing fault diagnosis in two steps: (a) incorporating explainability to the feature selection process, and (b) interpretation of the classifier performance with respect to the selected features. The effectiveness of the proposed model is demonstrated on two different datasets obtained from separate bearing testbeds. Lastly, an assessment of several state-of-the-art fault diagnosis algorithms in rotating machinery is included. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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Review

Jump to: Research

31 pages, 2297 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Systematic Literature Review of Predictive Maintenance for Defence Fixed-Wing Aircraft Sustainment and Operations

by Michael J. Scott, Wim J. C. Verhagen, Marie T. Bieber and Pier Marzocca

Sensors 2022, 22(18), 7070; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22187070 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 11019

Abstract

In recent decades, the increased use of sensor technologies, as well as the increase in digitalisation of aircraft sustainment and operations, have enabled capabilities to detect, diagnose, and predict the health of aircraft structures, systems, and components. Predictive maintenance and closely related concepts, [...] Read more.

In recent decades, the increased use of sensor technologies, as well as the increase in digitalisation of aircraft sustainment and operations, have enabled capabilities to detect, diagnose, and predict the health of aircraft structures, systems, and components. Predictive maintenance and closely related concepts, such as prognostics and health management (PHM) have attracted increasing attention from a research perspective, encompassing a growing range of original research papers as well as review papers. When considering the latter, several limitations remain, including a lack of research methodology definition, and a lack of review papers on predictive maintenance which focus on military applications within a defence context. This review paper aims to address these gaps by providing a systematic two-stage review of predictive maintenance focused on a defence domain context, with particular focus on the operations and sustainment of fixed-wing defence aircraft. While defence aircraft share similarities with civil aviation platforms, defence aircraft exhibit significant variation in operations and environment and have different performance objectives and constraints. The review utilises a systematic methodology incorporating bibliometric analysis of the considered domain, as well as text processing and clustering of a set of aligned review papers to position the core topics for subsequent discussion. This discussion highlights state-of-the-art applications and associated success factors in predictive maintenance and decision support, followed by an identification of practical and research challenges. The scope is primarily confined to fixed-wing defence aircraft, including legacy and emerging aircraft platforms. It highlights that challenges in predictive maintenance and PHM for researchers and practitioners alike do not necessarily revolve solely on what can be monitored, but also covers how robust decisions can be made with the quality of data available. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensing Technologies for Fault Diagnostics and Prognosis)

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