Stresses

Oxidative stress is a major constraint limiting animal health and productive performance by disrupting redox homeostasis, mitochondrial function, intestinal integrity, and mineral metabolism. Agronomic biofortification of forage with essential trace minerals represents a promising nutritional strategy; however, its physiological and molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study evaluated the effects of dietary zinc–iron (Zn–Fe) biofortified alfalfa on oxidative stress, antioxidant defense, mineral transport, mitochondrial bioenergetics, intestinal barrier integrity, inflammatory responses, tissue mineral deposition, and growth performance in guinea pigs. Forty-eight male guinea pigs were allocated to six experimental groups according to dietary treatment (control, Zn-biofortified alfalfa, or Zn–Fe biofortified alfalfa) and oxidative stress status. Oxidative biomarkers, antioxidant enzyme activities, inflammatory mediators, mineral concentrations, targeted RT–qPCR, mitochondrial function, intestinal histomorphology, and multivariate physiological analyses were performed. Zn–Fe biofortified alfalfa markedly reduced reactive oxygen species, malondialdehyde, protein carbonyls, 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, advanced oxidation protein products, and the oxidative stress index while significantly increasing superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, total antioxidant capacity, and the glutathione redox ratio. Targeted gene-expression analysis demonstrated coordinated upregulation of intestinal mineral transporters (ZIP4, DMT1, and MT1), activation of the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway, increased expression of mitochondrial regulatory genes, and suppression of inflammatory mediators. These molecular responses were accompanied by improved ATP production, mitochondrial membrane potential, respiratory-chain activity, preservation of intestinal villus architecture, enhanced expression of tight-junction proteins, increased tissue Zn and Fe deposition, superior feed efficiency, and greater body weight gain. Integrated physiological analyses consistently identified the Zn–Fe biofortified treatment as the highest-performing physiological phenotype, indicating coordinated adaptation across multiple biological systems. These findings demonstrate that Zn–Fe biofortified alfalfa enhances oxidative stress resilience through simultaneous regulation of mineral transport, antioxidant defense, mitochondrial bioenergetics, intestinal barrier integrity, and systemic physiological performance. Agronomic biofortification of forage therefore represents a promising nutritional strategy for improving animal health, mineral utilization, and productive efficiency under oxidative stress. Full article

Soil salinization stands out as a major factor contributing to the shrinkage of arable land. This study explored the salt tolerance mechanism of tillers in CMG and 9311 by evaluating morphophysiological, transcriptomic, and metabolomic characteristics under 0.3% NaCl stress. The activities of SOD, POD, and APX in the tiller nodes of the salt-tolerant variety CMG were higher than those of 9311, while the levels of MDA and hydrogen peroxide in the tiller nodes of CMG were relatively low. Both varieties responded to salt stress mainly by activating pathways such as amino acid metabolism (alanine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid metabolism, and arginine biosynthesis), amino acid acyl-trNA biosynthesis, oxidative phosphorylation, and phenylpropanin biosynthesis. The varieties differed in that CMG tillering nodes also have unique pathways of “glycerophospholipid metabolism” (related to membrane lipid remodeling) and “biosynthesis of the cuticle, suppositories and waxes”, which can effectively reduce water loss and prevent sodium ions from entering. In addition, CMG can regulate more plant hormone signaling pathways to coordinate the expression and metabolic activities of downstream defense genes, such as abscisic acid (ABA) and jasmonic acid (JA), and other hormone signals. After salt stress, the CMG tiller nodes tend to strengthen themselves, enabling them to resist stress and reduce Na⁺ toxicity, while the 9311 tiller nodes, under the condition of activating basal metabolism, transfer to the leaves to enhance photosynthetic efficiency and resist stress. Through comprehensive screening and analysis of the genes and metabolites of CMG and 9311 tillers under salt stress, the molecular mechanisms and metabolic pathway dynamics involved in their salt stress response were identified, thus providing a new perspective for in-depth research on rice salt tolerance mechanisms. Full article

Global demand for cape gooseberry fruits has experienced significant growth in recent years. These fruits exhibit a physiological disorder known as cracking, caused by irregular water supply to the crop and calcium deficiencies. Therefore, the effects of different irrigation levels and calcium fertilization on fruit quality and on enzymes such as polygalacturonase, which is involved in cell wall degradation during ripening and stress responses. A completely randomized block design was used, with three blocks representing irrigation frequencies (4, 9, and 14 days) and twelve treatments arranged in a 4 × 3 factorial design. The first factor was the irrigation coefficient (0.7, 0.9, 1.1, and 1.3 of evaporation), and the second was calcium fertilization (0, 50, and 100 kg ha⁻¹ of Ca²⁺ applied as calcium nitrate). Calcium fertilization did not affect the fruits’ calcium concentration [Ca²⁺]. Cape gooseberry plants fertilized with 50 and 100 kg ha⁻¹ of calcium accumulated 57% and 107% more of this nutrient in the leaves compared to the control, while the calyx accumulated 72% more with calcium application. Irrigation coefficients of 1.1 and 1.3 of ETc reduced [Ca²⁺] in the leaves by 24% compared to irrigation coefficients of 0.7 and 0.9. [Ca²⁺] in the calyx decreased by 25% when the irrigation frequency was increased from 4 to 14 days. Numerically, the highest fruit concentrations of K⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mg²⁺ were observed under the combination of a 50 kg ha⁻¹ calcium dose, a 0.9 irrigation coefficient, and a 9-day irrigation frequency. Polygalacturonase activity was significantly reduced by calcium fertilization, but irrigation treatments did not produce statistically significant effects. Full article

Aging is characterized by a progressive decline in physiological resilience and increased susceptibility to chronic diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders. Emerging evidence indicates that low-dose stressors (collectively termed hormetic stimuli) activate adaptive cellular responses that enhance stress resistance, promote repair mechanisms, and ultimately extend healthspan. This narrative review synthesizes current knowledge on hormesis in the context of aging, with a focus on key molecular pathways including nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), sirtuins, autophagy, and mitohormesis. We examine how lifestyle interventions (physical exercise, caloric restriction, mild thermal stress) and emerging pharmacological agents induce beneficial adaptive responses, while critically evaluating their translational potential in clinical and public health settings. Special emphasis is placed on the role of hormesis in counteracting neurodegeneration, the utility of autophagy and systemic aging biomarkers (epigenetic clocks, inflammaging scores) for precision dosing, and the limitations imposed by inter-individual variability, age-related decline in adaptive capacity, and risks of overexposure. Importantly, this review distinguishes experimentally demonstrated hormetic responses from broader adaptive stress responses and critically evaluates situations in which hormetic mechanisms may be insufficient, maladaptive, or clinically inappropriate. Understanding the delicate balance between beneficial and detrimental stress responses is essential for leveraging hormesis as a robust strategy to counteract aging and age-related diseases. We further propose a multilevel framework integrating molecular mechanisms with clinical outcomes, positioning hormesis as a key determinant of adaptive resilience (stress resistance, mitochondrial function, HRV, VO₂max) in aging. Full article

Temperature is a major environmental determinant of flowering time and reproductive success in plants. Ongoing global warming is changing flowering phenology across natural and agricultural ecosystems, yet the mechanisms by which ambient temperature regulates the transition to reproduction remain less fully resolved than those underlying photoperiodic flowering and vernalization. This review synthesizes eco-physiological and molecular evidence for temperature-dependent flowering across plant groups and terrestrial ecosystems. It considers the development of the florigen concept, the identification of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) and related phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein family members, and the integration of temperature signals with flowering activators and repressors. Particular attention is given to the thermosensory pathway, including alternative splicing, chromatin regulation, membrane-associated signaling, phase separation and temperature-dependent accumulation or stability of regulatory proteins. The review also examines phenological responses to rising temperatures in bulbous geophytes, Arctic and boreal species, subtropical and tropical crops, and desert plants. Available evidence indicates that the temperature requirements for floral initiation, their organogenesis and anthesis vary widely among species and developmental stages, and that these optima reflect life-history strategy, origin and adaptation to seasonal temperature regimes. Full article

The genus Euterpe, which includes açaí palm (Euterpe oleracea) and juçara palm (Euterpe edulis), plays an important socioeconomic and environmental role in Brazil. However, soil and water salinization is a global issue that compromises agricultural productivity by affecting plant physiological and metabolic processes. This study aimed to evaluate the physiological responses of young açaí and juçara plants under salt stress. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design in a 5 × 2 factorial arrangement, consisting of five irrigation water salinity levels (0.1, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 5.0 dS m⁻¹) and two Euterpe species (açaí and juçara), with four replicates. After 104 days of stress exposure, gas exchange, chlorophyll ‘a’ fluorescence, relative chlorophyll index (SPAD), and sodium, chloride, and phenolic compounds were evaluated. Increasing salinity caused linear reductions in the maximum quantum yield and potential photochemical efficiency of PSII, accompanied by an increase in F₀/Fm, indicating impaired PSII photochemical performance and photoinhibition. Stomatal conductance and transpiration also decreased significantly with increasing salinity, with reductions of up to 41.33% and 35.48%, respectively, at the highest salinity level. Salt stress negatively affected the physiological performance of both palm species through stomatal limitation and reduced photosystem II efficiency. However, açaí plants exhibited greater tolerance to salt stress than juçara plants. Full article

Despite the growing demand for sustainable agricultural systems, the long-term effects of tillage practices remain controversial. No-tillage (NT) systems offer several potential benefits, including improved soil structure, enhanced soil biological activity, and reduced environmental stress, but their application can also be associated with challenges such as difficulty in weed control or variable crop yield. Although previous studies have extensively investigated the effects of NT systems on soil and crop, limited knowledge is available about the cellular adaptation mechanisms of plants, especially gene expression and biochemical responses. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of conventional tillage (CT) and NT systems in sunflower plants using an integrated transcriptomic and biochemical approach. We performed genome-wide transcriptomic analysis based on next-generation sequencing on leaf samples from three different field sites, supplemented by measurements of biochemical parameters related to selected metabolic processes. Exploratory transcriptomic analysis indicated that several gene expression changes related to primary metabolic processes occurred in plants grown in the NT system compared to the CT system. These included processes related to photosynthesis, cellular respiration, carbohydrate metabolism and the biosynthesis of some amino acids. In parallel, we observed transcriptional patterns indicating increased activity of several secondary metabolic pathways, which may be related to adaptation mechanisms to environmental stress. Determination of total soluble sugar, crude protein, total phenolics and total flavonoids provided independent biochemical support for the changes indicated by the transcriptomic results. Our results suggest that the tillage system affects the cellular regulatory processes of sunflower. During adaptation to a no-tillage environment, plants can simultaneously maintain basic metabolic processes and activate defense mechanisms that may contribute to adaptation to changed growing conditions. Our study contributes to a better understanding of the molecular and physiological consequences of tillage systems in plants. Full article

Free proline accumulation is an important physiological trait frequently associated with plant responses to changing environmental conditions. This study investigated seasonal patterns of free proline concentration in the underground organs of four Mediterranean geophytes—Pancratium maritimum, Sternbergia lutea, Iris germanica, and Cyclamen graecum—under natural environmental conditions. Monthly temperature and precipitation data were incorporated to examine the influence of environmental factors on proline dynamics. The results revealed clear species-specific and seasonal variation in proline accumulation. Sternbergia lutea exhibited the highest proline concentrations and the greatest seasonal variability, whereas Iris germanica maintained comparatively low and stable levels. To evaluate descriptive performance, both a linear seasonal regression model and a Random Forest regression model were applied. The linear model showed moderate predictive performance (R² = 0.488), slightly outperforming the Random Forest model (R² = 0.350). Overall, the findings demonstrate clear species-specific differences in seasonal proline accumulation that are consistent with differing physiological responses among the studied geophytes. The pronounced interspecific differences observed in this study suggest that proline accumulation is a species-specific physiological trait rather than a universal response among Mediterranean geophytes. The integration of physiological measurements with statistical and machine learning approaches provides an exploratory framework for examining seasonal variation in proline accumulation and evaluating statistical approaches for describing species-specific patterns. Full article

Oxidative stress poses significant challenges for fungi inhabiting extreme environments. Elevated salinity frequently induces the excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage cellular components and impair growth. In response, fungi—common inhabitants of extreme environments—activate coordinated adaptive mechanisms, including antioxidant defense systems and other stress-related pathways. In the present study, a newly isolated strain, Trichoderma afroharzianum B2.2, obtained from the poorly studied saline habitat of Atanasovsko Lake (Bulgaria), was investigated. The cellular response of this moderately halotolerant strain to increased salinity was characterized. Biomarkers of oxidative stress were evaluated, and the involvement of key enzymes from glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway in the strain’s adaptation to elevated salinity was examined. Understanding adaptations to salt environments is crucial not only for elucidating fungal survival mechanisms under extreme conditions but also for their potential applications in biotechnology, ecology, and food safety, particularly in the context of increasing ecosystem salinization and climate change. Full article

Water deficit represents a major environmental constraint that severely limits the growth and yield of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Although inoculation with plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) has emerged as a promising strategy to mitigate drought-induced stress, the efficacy of specific strains, such as Priestia aryabhattai CMAA 1363, remains to be fully elucidated. This study evaluated the morpho-agronomic and biochemical responses of common bean to seed inoculation with P. aryabhattai CMAA 1363 under two contrasting irrigation regimes: 100% (well-watered) and 40% (water-restricted) of available water capacity (AWC) under greenhouse conditions. Water restriction significantly compromised plant performance, reducing plant and pod length, root dry biomass, and yield components (pod and grain counts, and total grain mass). Conversely, bacterial inoculation enhanced vegetative traits, increasing plant length by approximately 15% and root dry biomass by approximately 25% compared to non-inoculated controls. Notably, under severe water deficit (40% AWC), inoculated plants achieved a 20% increase in total grain mass per plant relative to their non-inoculated counterparts. Biochemical profiling indicated that inoculation effectively attenuated oxidative stress, as evidenced by lower malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation and modulated superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, while water-stressed plants adapted by accumulating total soluble sugars and increasing peroxidase (POD) activity. Overall, P. aryabhattai CMAA 1363 promotes vegetative development, preserves grain production under drought, and orchestrates antioxidant defense mechanisms, highlighting its potential as a sustainable bioinput to improve common bean resilience in water-limited agricultural systems. Full article

In container-grown ornamental shrub production, limited substrate volume can rapidly alter plant water status and affect leaf-level physiological performance. A randomized block experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of three foliar-applied biostimulants, BiStep, Kelpak, and Yeald Plus, compared with an untreated control in container-grown Forsythia × intermedia ‘Beatrix Farrand’. Each treatment comprised 25 plants distributed across five blocks. Stomatal density, stomatal length, leaf transpiration, net photosynthesis, total chlorophyll content, and gravimetrically determined daily water loss were measured. Compared with the control, BiStep significantly increased stomatal density, whereas Yeald Plus significantly decreased it. Kelpak and Yeald Plus significantly increased stomatal length compared with the control. Leaf transpiration was significantly lower under Kelpak and Yeald Plus than in the control, while Kelpak and BiStep had significantly higher net photosynthetic rates than Yeald Plus, whereas the control did not differ significantly from any treatment. Total chlorophyll content did not differ significantly among treatments. Whole-plant daily water loss was higher in all biostimulant-treated plants than in the control, with the highest values recorded under BiStep. These results show that the tested biostimulants induced treatment-specific physiological changes rather than a uniform response. Kelpak provided the most favorable leaf-level balance by reducing instantaneous transpiration while maintaining high photosynthetic activity, whereas BiStep promoted a more water-demanding physiological profile. Based on these outcomes, Kelpak may be recommended where improved leaf-level physiological efficiency is required under container-grown nursery conditions, while BiStep should be applied only with adequate irrigation management. Full article

Nanoscale zerovalent iron (nZVI) has shown promise for soil remediation. This study examined the impact of this nanomaterial on barley and wheat grown in alkaline soil throughout a complete growth cycle, to assess its potential as a fertilizer and to understand its behavior in an uncontaminated matrix. A greenhouse experiment was conducted in which barley and wheat plants were grown in soil treated with a commercial nZVI slurry at 0 and 5% (equivalent to 0 and 8 g kg⁻¹). Physiological parameters were monitored throughout the growth cycle, and plants were harvested after five months. Biomass production, impact on root and leaf ultrastructure, and the concentrations of Fe and other nutrients were determined in several plant tissues. Soil physicochemical properties were not adversely affected by nZVI application, and an increase in Fe availability was observed regardless of the species, from 1 mg kg⁻¹ to 5.2 and 6.6 mg kg⁻¹ in barley and wheat soils, respectively. However, this increase did not translate into higher Fe accumulation in plant tissues at the end of the growth cycle, nor did it enhance plant growth in either species. Therefore, under the experimental conditions evaluated, the application of nZVI as an iron fertilizer cannot be recommended. Notably, both crops exhibited a greater sensitivity to nZVI during early stages of development, as evidenced by significant reductions in chlorophyll content and increased oxidative stress. These initial adverse effects were progressively alleviated as plant growth advanced, with no detectable alterations in cellular ultrastructure, allowing both species to complete their growth cycle. Full article

Cadaverine is a lysine-derived diamine that remains less studied than the canonical plant polyamines putrescine, spermidine, and spermine. Its polycationic nature suggests it may influence membrane stability, ionic balance, redox regulation, and stress-related metabolic adjustments, but its specific contribution to plant resilience to abiotic stress remains poorly characterized. This systematic review, evidence map, and exploratory meta-analysis synthesized the published literature on cadaverine-associated responses in plants exposed to abiotic stress. The object of analysis was the existing body of literature, and the quantitative component summarized data extracted from eligible studies rather than generating new experimental results. The review examined whether the available literature supports a role for cadaverine beyond its description as a stress-associated metabolite, particularly regarding transport, oxidative stress mitigation, photosynthetic protection, water status, ionic homeostasis, and growth maintenance. The evidence indicates that cadaverine is primarily associated with beneficial physiological responses to stress, particularly when applied exogenously. However, the magnitude of the response varies across species, stress types, doses, application methods, and response variables. Mechanistically, cadaverine may contribute to stress tolerance by activating antioxidant enzymes, reducing oxidative damage, stabilizing membranes, protecting the photosynthetic apparatus, promoting osmotic adjustment, and modulating cation transport. However, endogenous cadaverine dynamics and several proposed signaling connections remain insufficiently validated. Overall, cadaverine emerges as a promising regulatory candidate for fundamental research on plant stress physiology. In contrast, its agronomic use still requires standardized dose–response studies, comparative analysis with other polyamines, and greenhouse and field validation. Full article

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are widely used in behavioral neuroscience and ecotoxicology to study stress-related responses. Traditional plus maze paradigms rely on arm preference, with arms differing in perceived safety. Here, we propose an alternative approach using a plus maze with identical arms, where stress is assessed based on movement patterns rather than preference. Fish explored the maze for 20 min under baseline conditions, followed by exposure to hyperosmotic stress (5‰ salinity). Behavior was quantified using automated video tracking, including locomotor activity, spontaneous alternation, and transition patterns between arms. Salinity stress did not significantly affect overall locomotor activity or spontaneous alternation. However, it markedly altered movement structure. The proportion of circular transitions decreased significantly. Most notably, transitions between adjacent arms declined, while transitions between opposing arms increased to nearly 50% of total entries. The runs test analysis further indicated an increased tendency toward repetitive movement sequences under stress conditions. These behavioral changes were associated with significantly increased whole-body cortisol levels. The findings identify a shift toward opposing-arm transitions as a potentially sensitive and previously underappreciated behavioral correlate of stress in zebrafish. This metric may complement conventional behavioral endpoints and offers particular promise for automated high-throughput applications in ecotoxicology and preclinical research. Full article

Persistent inflammatory and metabolic stress contribute to impaired tissue repair, particularly under diabetic conditions. Agave potatorum is traditionally used in Mexico to treat inflammation and wounds; however, its safety profile and potential to modulate stress-associated biological responses remain poorly investigated. This study evaluated the safety, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing activities of the hydroalcoholic extract of A. potatorum and its fractions. Safety was assessed using human keratinocytes and fibroblasts, as well as an acute oral toxicity assay (OECD Guideline 420) in female CD-1 mice. Anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated using a TPA-induced ear edema model, while wound-healing activity was assessed in normoglycemic and alloxan-induced diabetic male CD-1 mice. The hydroalcoholic extract exhibited a favorable safety profile, showing low cytotoxicity at therapeutically relevant concentrations and no signs of systemic toxicity at 2000 mg/kg. The hydroalcoholic extract and its EtOAc and n-BuOH fractions significantly reduced TPA-induced ear edema. The n-BuOH fraction also accelerated wound contraction in diabetic mice from day 6 onward, whereas only limited effects were observed in normoglycemic animals. A. potatorum exhibits a favorable preclinical safety profile and modulates biological responses associated with inflammatory stress, supporting its therapeutic potential for chronic diabetic wound healing. Full article

Drought represents one of the major constraints limiting maize productivity in southeastern Europe, particularly under non-irrigated conditions. This study evaluated the effectiveness of foliar biostimulants derived from animal collagen and keratin hydrolysates in mitigating drought stress and improving maize performance in southern Romania during a six-year field experiment (2020–2025). During the screening phase (2020–2022), four formulations (FM1, FM2, KC, and K2) were applied at two rates (5 and 10 L ha⁻¹) and compared with an untreated control. Significant effects of biostimulant formulation and dose were identified for plant height and grain yield (p < 0.001). Duncan’s multiple range test showed that K2 applied at 10 L ha⁻¹ achieved the highest mean grain yield (87.71 q ha⁻¹), significantly exceeding the untreated control (70.94 q ha⁻¹). Based on these results, K2 was selected for long-term validation during 2023–2025 and subsequently evaluated across the entire six-year experimental period. Mean grain yield increased from 52.06 q ha⁻¹ in the untreated control to 58.74 and 64.91 q ha⁻¹ following K2 application at 5 and 10 L ha⁻¹, respectively. Yield improvements were particularly pronounced during years characterized by severe precipitation deficits, when relative yield increases reached up to 41.9%. Economic analysis demonstrated positive net returns in all experimental years, with average profits of 108.6 EUR ha⁻¹ and 206.9 EUR ha⁻¹ for the 5 and 10 L ha⁻¹ application rates, respectively. The results demonstrate that keratin-based biostimulants derived from industrial by-products can improve maize productivity, enhance drought resilience, and contribute to circular-economy approaches in sustainable agriculture. Full article

Boron serves as a necessary micronutrient, but elevated concentrations may exert toxic effects, which has raised concern over its increasing presence in the environment owing to anthropogenic activities. This study assessed the sublethal effects of boron on Daphnia magna, which is a commonly employed model species in freshwater ecotoxicology. D. magna neonates were subjected to boron concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 350 mg B/L over 48 h, and acute toxicity (EC₅₀), along with swimming velocity, heart rate, and oxidative stress responses, were evaluated as toxicological endpoints. Swimming velocity increased significantly at 80 mg B/L before declining, while heart rate significantly decreased at 250 mg B/L (p < 0.05). In addition, significant increases in oxidative stress responses were observed at sublethal concentrations of 40 and 80 mg B/L (p < 0.05), highlighting the sensitivity of oxidative stress responses to boron exposure. These findings demonstrate the previously underexplored sublethal effects of boron on D. magna, including alterations in swimming velocity, heart rate, and antioxidant defenses, emphasizing the need for integrated endpoints in ecotoxicological assessments. Full article

Brassica napus L. is a major oilseed crop whose productivity is significantly affected by abiotic stresses such as drought. PYR/PYL/RCAR (PYL) proteins act as key abscisic acid (ABA) receptors and play central roles in stress responses. However, a comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the PYL gene family in B. napus is still lacking, limiting our understanding of their functions in plant and stress adaptation. This study reports the first comprehensive genome-wide analysis of the PYL gene family in B. napus (rapeseed), cultivar ZS11, identifying 25 BnPYL genes grouped into four subfamilies, I (four genes), I-II (five genes), II (five genes), III (11 genes), and their encoded proteins were predicted to be mainly localized in the chloroplast. Structural analysis revealed diverse exon–intron organization and 10 conserved motifs. All identified BnPYLs contained Polyketide_cyc2 domains (PF10604), supporting their annotation as members of the PYL family. Promoter analysis identified cis-regulatory elements related to light response, stress regulation, and hormonal signaling. Computational analysis of post-translational modifications suggested that phosphorylation sites are mainly localized at serine and threonine residues. Tertiary structure modelling revealed conserved three-dimensional architectures among BnPYL proteins, suggesting potential functional conservation. Expression profiling and RT-qPCR analyses revealed that several BnPYL genes respond to ABA-mediated drought stress, with BnPYL15 and BnPYL22 exhibiting the highest induction (4–5-fold) and BnPYL2, BnPYL5, BnPYL6, BnPYL17, BnPYL18, and BnPYL25 showing significant upregulation (2.0–4.5-fold), suggesting potential roles in enhancing drought tolerance in B. napus. Full article

Legume–rhizobia symbiosis plays an important role in plant responses to stressful environments, including soils contaminated with heavy metals. Anthyllis vulneraria, a widespread wild legume, exhibits genotype-dependent variation in metal tolerance and accumulation. The objective of this study was to compare responses of three A. vulneraria genotypes to Pb and Mn stress and to test the hypothesis that tolerance is influenced by rhizobial inoculation with a specific strain. Plants were cultivated under partially controlled conditions with or without inoculation and subjected to Pb or Mn stress. Growth, nodulation, tissue water content, photochemical performance, and metal accumulation were assessed. Both metals negatively affected plant growth and physiological performance; however, responses were genotype-dependent and modified by inoculation. Genotype AV1 showed consistently positive responses, AV2 moderate responses particularly under Mn stress, and AV3 limited effects. Metal accumulation patterns suggested genotype-dependent differences, with AV2 showing higher accumulation in roots and lower Mn concentrations, while AV1 and AV3 showed higher Pb concentration in older leaves under inoculated conditions. Overall, the results suggest that plant responses in A. vulneraria may depend on specific genotype–rhizobia–metal combinations, but these findings are based on a limited number of genotypes and a single inoculum and should be interpreted cautiously with respect to phytoremediation applications. Full article