Stresses

Cross-kingdom infections, where pathogens from one kingdom infect organisms of another, were historically regarded as rare anomalies with minimal concern. However, emerging evidence reveals their increasing prevalence and potential to disrupt the delicate balance between plant, animal, and human health systems. Traditionally recognized as plant-specific, a subset of phytopathogens, including certain fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes, have demonstrated the capacity to infect non-plant hosts, particularly immunocompromised individuals. These pathogens exploit conserved molecular mechanisms, such as immune evasion strategies, stress responses, and effector proteins, to breach host-specific barriers and establish infections. Specifically, fungal pathogens like Fusarium spp. and Colletotrichum spp. employ toxin-mediated cytotoxicity and cell-wall-degrading enzymes, while bacterial pathogens, such as Pseudomonas syringae, utilize type III secretion systems to manipulate host immune responses. Viral and nematode phytopathogens also exhibit molecular mimicry and host-derived RNA silencing suppressors to facilitate infections beyond plant hosts. This review features emerging cases of phytopathogen-driven animal and human infections and dissects the key molecular and ecological determinants that facilitate such cross-kingdom transmission. It also highlights critical drivers, including pathogen plasticity, horizontal gene transfer, and the convergence of environmental and anthropogenic stressors that breach traditional host boundaries. Furthermore, this review focuses on the underlying molecular mechanisms that enable host adaptation and the evolutionary pressures shaping these transitions. To address the complex threats posed by cross-kingdom phytopathogens, a comprehensive One Health approach that bridges plant, animal, and human health strategies is advocated. Integrating molecular surveillance, pathogen genomics, AI-powered predictive modeling, and global biosecurity initiatives is essential to detect, monitor, and mitigate cross-kingdom infections. This interdisciplinary approach not only enhances our preparedness for emerging zoonoses and phytopathogen spillovers but also strengthens ecological resilience and public health security in an era of increasing biological convergence. Full article

Abiotic stresses like heat and salinity challenge crop production, but cultivar-specific adaptability and tolerance inducers can mitigate their impact. This study examined the growth and biochemical responses of five tomato varieties (Adeleza F1, Saint Anna F1, Goudski F1, Bronski F1, and Dunk F1) to thermopriming followed by salinity stresses. Thermopriming initially promoted growth but had variable effects on plant performance under combined stresses. Adeleza F1 and Bronski F1 were less affected, while Goudski F1 and Dunk F1 exhibited delayed development and reduced biomass under salinity stress. Thermopriming enhanced leaf chlorophyll content and antioxidant capacity in some varieties but inconsistently influenced leaf phenolics and flavonoids. Notably, increased flavonoid and anthocyanin accumulation in certain varieties suggests improved stress tolerance, albeit at the cost of growth. However, a consistent priming effect was not observed across all varieties, as combined heat and salt stress had a more severe impact than individual stresses. These findings highlight genotype-specific responses, underscoring the need for optimized (thermo-)priming protocols that balance growth and defense. This study provides valuable insights into the complex interplay of heat and salinity stress in tomatoes, emphasizing targeted strategies for enhancing crop resilience and informing future breeding programs. Full article

Cellular stressors have been demonstrated to exert a substantial influence on the functionality of organelles, thereby impacting cellular homeostasis and contributing to the development of disease pathogenesis. This review aims to examine the impact of diverse stressors, including environmental, chemical, biological, and physical factors, on critical organelles such as the cell membrane, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and membrane-less organelles. The intricate molecular mechanisms underlying cellular stress responses, encompassing oxidative stress, protein misfolding, and metabolic reprogramming, have the capacity to elicit adaptive responses or culminate in pathological conditions. The interplay between these stressors and organelle dysfunction has been implicated in a myriad of diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, metabolic disorders, and immune-related pathologies. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms by which organelles respond to stress can offer valuable insights into the development of therapeutic strategies aimed at mitigating cellular damage. Full article

Mushrooms play an important role in ecosystem sustainability and are highly valued in medicine and human nutrition. Using AAS and biochemical methods of analysis, the antioxidant status and mineral composition of seven mushroom species (Armillaria mellea, Xeromocus illudens, Leccinum aurantiacum, Leccinum scrabum, Lactarium pubescens, Rusula vesca, and Lycoperpon molle Pers.) gathered near the Pechenganikel smelting plant in the Pasvik Nature Reserve of the Murmansk region were evaluated. The concentrations of Ni and Cu in the fruiting bodies of mushrooms were in the ranges of 0.43–39.7 and 7.9–45.9 mg kg⁻¹ d.w., respectively. An unusually high biological concentration factor (BCF) for Ni, Cu, and Zn levels in mushrooms grown in soils with a low amount of these elements indicates the low suitability of the mentioned parameter for mushroom characteristics in territories with an uneven distribution of elements in soil. On the other hand, selenium (Se) showed high BCF levels, exceeding 1, for all mushrooms tested, with the highest values associated with L. saccatum (5.17) and the lowest values with A. mellea (1.36). A significant excess (3.4) of the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) level per 30 g of dry mushrooms was recorded for Ni in Russula vesca gathered 6 km from the Ni/Cu smelting plant, and 1.3 excess of the RDA was recorded in L. scrabum grown in the vicinity of the Shuonyoka waterfall. No RDA excess was revealed for Cu. Positive correlations between Se, polyphenol content, and total antioxidant activity (AOA) (r = 0.915–0.926; p < 0.001) and a negative correlation between Cu–Se and Cu–AOA in Leccinum species indicate the important role of antioxidant defense and Se, particularly in Arctic mushroom growth and survival, providing a specific protection of mushrooms against Cu toxicity. Full article

Bacillus halotolerans, a halophilic bacterial species of the genus Bacillus, is emerging as a biological control agent with immense potential for sustainable agriculture, particularly in extreme conditions and environmental rehabilitation. This review summarizes the current state of research on B. halotolerans, emphasizing its diverse applications in the biocontrol of plant pathogens, plant growth promotion under salinity stress, nematode management, and bioremediation. B. halotolerans utilizes several mechanisms such as the production of siderophores and phytohormones, secretion of exopolysaccharides, and the release of antifungal and nematicidal compounds, which allows it to mitigate both abiotic and biotic stresses in various crops, including wheat, rice, date palm, tomato, and others. In addition, genomic and metabolomic analyses have revealed its potential for secondary metabolite production that improves its antagonistic and growth-promoting traits. Despite significant progress, challenges remain in translating laboratory results into field applications. Future research should focus on formulating effective bioinoculants and field trials to maximize the practical utility of B. halotolerans for sustainable agriculture and environmental resilience. Full article

Climate change significantly impacts agriculture by increasing the frequency and intensity of environmental stresses, which can severely reduce agricultural yields. Adopting sustainable practices is crucial to mitigating these risks and enhancing crop resilience. Applying natural compounds and microorganisms as biostimulants has gained popularity as an eco-friendly approach to alleviating abiotic stress in agricultural plants. This study reviews the current research on applying biostimulants in horticulturally significant crops to boost their resistance to abiotic stressors such as salinity, drought, and high temperatures. It explores the mechanisms through which these stimulants offer protection, focusing on the roles of key bioactive substances in regulating physiological and molecular processes for stress adaptation. The study addresses biostimulant formulation, regulation, and application challenges. Future research directions are suggested to harness biostimulants’ potential fully, aiming to develop climate-resilient horticultural systems that follow sustainability principles. This comprehensive review underscores the use of biostimulants as a sustainable strategy to increase crop yields in the face of climate change, reducing reliance on synthetic agrochemicals. Full article

Marine macroalgae (commonly known as seaweeds), a rich yet underexplored resource, have emerged as a promising source of bioactive compounds with potent antioxidant properties. While oxidative stress is a critical factor in the pathogenesis of numerous chronic diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular conditions, and cancer, macroalgae-derived compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, peptides, and sulfated polysaccharides have demonstrated the ability to mitigate oxidative damage through multifaceted mechanisms. These compounds neutralize reactive oxygen species and modulate key cellular pathways involved in inflammation and apoptosis. Despite significant advancements, gaps persist in understanding the pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and clinical applications of these bioactives. Additionally, the inefficiencies of traditional extraction methods call for adopting innovative, environmentally friendly techniques that preserve bioactivity. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the therapeutic potential of macroalgal bioactives, acknowledges the contributions of other marine algae where relevant, highlights challenges in their extraction, and proposes future directions for research and application. Full article

Climate change, particularly extreme rainfall, imposes stress on plants, which can be assessed using fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in leaves and key leaf traits. FA, which is defined as random deviations in symmetrical structures, is a known bioindicator of environmental stress. Additionally, leaf area (LA) and specific leaf area (SLA) provide insights into plant responses to stressors. Mangrove plants have several mechanisms to cope with constant flooding and rainy periods. However, under extreme rainfall conditions, their adaptive capacity may be overwhelmed and plants may experience developmental stress. Nonetheless, it has not yet been verified whether plants subjected to drastic increases in rainfall exhibit more asymmetric leaves. We investigated seasonal differences in FA in Laguncularia racemosa after an extreme rainfall event and found a significant increase in FA after the rainfall event (t = 1.759, df = 149, p = 0.08) compared with the dry season. Concurrently, LA increased by 28% (p < 0.01) and SLA increased by 33% (p < 0.01) after the rainfall event. During the dry season, the plants exhibited antisymmetry rather than FA, highlighting their distinct responses to seasonal stressors. These findings demonstrate the differential effects of rainfall extremes on leaf traits and asymmetry, positioning FA, LA, and SLA as mangrove stress indicators. Full article

Pseudanabaena foetida, a filamentous cyanobacterium, is highly sensitive to temperature and light intensity. This study explores its oxidative stress responses under diurnal light intensities in temperature variations, utilizing hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) normalized to optical density (OD₇₃₀) levels (H₂O₂/OD₇₃₀) as a biomarker. The adequate P. foetida cells were distributed to three incubators for 22 days at 30 °C, 20 °C, and 10 °C. Light intensity varied over the course of the day, increasing from morning to a maximum at noon, followed by a gradual decrease until evening. Measurements of H₂O₂, protein, chlorophyll a (Chl a), and catalase (CAT) activity were carried out every three hours, starting at 6:00 and ending at 21:00. Protein concentration and Chl a increased between 12:00 and 15:00 for every temperature. H₂O₂, CAT, and H₂O₂/OD₇₃₀ increased until 15:00 and decreased afterwards for each temperature. The CAT was directly proportional to P. foetida’s H₂O₂ concentration or cell biomass (H₂O₂/OD₇₃₀), which indicates oxidative stress responses and a defense mechanism. The reduced temperature (30 °C to 20 °C and 30 °C to 10 °C) was significantly impactful on H₂O₂ concentration, protein concentration, and Chl a content. The model, based on P. foetida biomass, provides valuable insights into oxidative stress responses under different temperatures, with implications for understanding climate change. Full article

Current research on the effects of childhood trauma largely focuses on maltreatment. In the current study, we used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to determine the association between potentially traumatic exposures not related to maltreatment and fractional anisotropy (FA) in 184 youth aged 9–14 years. The Trauma History Profile was used to determine how many traumatic events in different categories were experienced and create low- and high-trauma groups. FA values were compared between groups in twelve a priori chosen regions of interest (ROIs). Five of the twelve regions showed significantly lower FA in the high-trauma groups when compared to the low-trauma groups, including the body of the corpus callosum, the total corpus callosum, bilateral posterior thalamic radiation, and the left cingulate gyrus projection of the cingulum bundle. Group differences were also observed across a range of behaviors. However, FA was not associated with posttraumatic stress symptomology. The results support the hypothesis that the high-trauma group had lower FA compared to the low-trauma group. The significant ROIs represent a subset of regions identified in studies of adults exposed to traumatic childhood events or children with a history of maltreatment. These results, obtained from typically developing youth, underline the importance of examining childhood trauma exposure in future developmental studies. Full article

The advancement of global warming and climate change requires strategic actions in understanding and seeking interactions between plant species and microorganisms that are more tolerant to water deficit. This research assessed the morpho-agronomic, physiological, and gene expression responses of two Passiflora cincinnata accessions (tolerant and sensitive) to water deficit, focusing on their relationship with mycorrhization. A randomized design with two accessions, two field capacities, and four AMF inoculation treatments was used to compare drought and control conditions. Differential gene expression was analyzed under drought stress, and the effect of mycorrhization on stress tolerance was evaluated. The results showed that inoculation with native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) communities, especially those from water-deficit conditions (AMF25), resulted in greater increases in height, number of leaves, stem diameter, number of tendrils, leaf area, and fresh biomass of root and shoot, with increases ranging from 50% to 300% compared to the control (non-inoculated) and monospecific inoculation (Entrophospora etunicata). Higher photosynthetic rate and water use efficiency were observed in the tolerant accession. Mycorrhizal inoculation increased the total chlorophyll content in both accessions, especially when inoculated with native AMF communities. Overall, P. cincinnata showed higher mycorrhizal responsiveness when inoculated with native AMF communities compared to monospecific inoculation with E. etunicata. The tolerant accession showed overexpression of the genes PcbZIP, PcSIP, and PcSTK, which are associated with signal transduction, water deficit tolerance, osmoregulation, and water transport. In contrast, the water deficit-sensitive accession showed repression of the PcSIP and PcSTK genes, indicating their potential use for distinguishing tolerant and sensitive accessions of the species. The tolerance of P. cincinnata to water deficit is directly related to physiological responses, increased photosynthetic rate, efficient water use, and regulation of gene expression. Full article

The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a global staple, but to guarantee its provision, the crop water supply must be adequate, and bioinput application can benefit plants under drought. The objective was to evaluate the common bean’s response to bioinput application when it was cropped in soils with different water holding capacities submitted to a drought period. The greenhouse experiment used sandy loam and clayey soils. Seeds were sown, and 10 days after emergence (DAE), the treatments were applied: (i) no bioinput application or (ii) bioinput application (Priestia aryabhattai, re-applied at 46 DAE). The first plant growth evaluation was performed at 40 DAE. The irrigation maintained the crops’ needs until the beginning of flowering for all the treatments, when the irrigation was differentiated (for 10 days): (i) maintenance of irrigation or (ii) a drought period. A biochemical analysis was performed of superoxide dismutase activity [SOD], hydrogen peroxide [H₂O₂], peroxidase activity [POD], and malonaldehyde [MDA] production at 52 DAE. At 57 DAE, the second plant growth evaluation was performed, and the irrigation differentiation ended. Grain harvest followed physiological maturation. Priestia aryabhattai mitigated the drought stress in the common bean cropped in sandy soil by reducing the SOD, H₂O₂, and MDA production in comparison to no bioinput application. When it was cultivated in the clayey soil, the water availability was maintained for longer, reducing the plant’s dependency on bacteria for stress mitigation. Full article

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is one of the earliest cultivated crops and is valued for its medicinal compounds, food, fibre, and bioactive secondary metabolites. The rapid expansion of the cannabis industry has surpassed the development of production system knowledge. The scientific community currently focuses on optimising agronomic and environmental factors to enhance cannabis yield and quality. However, cultivators face significant challenges from severe pathogens, with limited effective control options. The principal diseases include root rot, wilt, bud rot, powdery mildew, cannabis stunt disease, and microorganisms that reduce post-harvest quality. Sustainable management strategies involve utilising clean planting stocks, modifying environmental conditions, implementing sanitation, applying fungal and bacterial biological control agents, and drawing on decades of research on other crops. Plant–microbe interactions can promote growth and regulate secondary metabolite production. This review examines the recent literature on pathogen management in indoor cannabis production using biocontrol agents. Specific morphological, biochemical, and agronomic characteristics hinder the implementation of biological control strategies for cannabis. Subsequent investigations should focus on elucidating the plant–microbe interactions essential for optimising the effectiveness of biological control methodologies in cannabis cultivation systems. Full article

Non-target organisms are not well studied. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of seven essential oils, two fixed oils, d-limonene and eugenol on the mortality, behavior and infectivity of entomopathogenic nematodes (ENPs). The oils were diluted at 1% (v/v) in water with Tween^® 80 PS at 0.05% (v/v), and water with Tween^® alone was used as the control treatment. In the mortality test, 2 mL of solution containing 50 µL of the nematode suspension, 20 µL of oil/compounds solution isolated with Tween 80, and 1930 µL of water were placed in plastic containers. After four days, the number of dead juveniles was counted. In the bioassay of the behavior of the EPNs, the frequency of lateral body beats of the infective juveniles in liquid medium was analyzed after exposure to the solutions. In the infectivity test, after contact of the EPNs with oils and essential oil chemical compounds, the juveniles were washed and applied to second-instar Spodoptera eridania larvae. All oils and isolated compounds caused mortality in H. amazonensis and S. rarum, with Ocimum canum and the isolated compound eugenol showing the highest efficacy against H. amazonensis and O. canum, Eucalyptus citriodora, Zingiber officinale, Salvia sclarea and the isolated compound eugenol being the most effective against S. rarum. There was a reduction in the number of lateral beats of H. amazonensis and S. rarum for all treatments, with the exception of Cymbopogon winterianus in H. amazonensis and Annona muricata in S. rarum. The infectivity of H. amazonenis and S. rarum on S. eridania was reduced when exposed to the solutions, with the exception of the isolated compound d-limonene in both species, soursop for H. amazonenis and rosemary for S. rarum, which were classified as non-toxic to the species tested. The results obtained in this study may be useful for the choice of oils and essential oil chemical compounds with potential use in integrated pest management programs. Full article

Pancratium maritimum L. (sea or sand daffodil) —which is a perennial geophyte native to coastal habitats of the Mediterranean region—was used to investigate the effect of applied salinity on leaves and bulbs. Three groups of potted bulbs growing in a growth chamber were irrigated using aqueous sodium chloride solutions (1.5%, 3%, and 6%) and one group was irrigated with distilled water. Substantial fluctuations in proline accumulation, soluble sugars, and starch content have been investigated in the bulbs and leaves of potted plants in response to induced salinity. The highest leaf sugar content (239.78 mg/g d.w.) and bulb sugar content (213.31 mg/g d.w.), as well as the lowest proline accumulation (10.5 μmol/g d.w.), were found in samples from plants subjected to 1.5% NaCl. In the bulbs, elevated starch content (500 and 627 mg/g d.w.) was investigated in samples from plants irrigated with 1.5% and 3% NaCl, respectively. The stomatal density differed among the apical, middle, and basal parts of the same leaf blade from plants subjected to salinity treatment; the highest values (12,778 stomata/cm²) were detected in the apical leaf part and the lowest were in the basal leaf part (1407 stomata/cm²) of plants irrigated with 1.5% aqueous sodium chloride solution. The number of adjacent stomata connected with a structural strand varied among leaf parts subjected to 1.5% NaCl, while it was quite similar and comparable in leaf parts of plants irrigated with aqueous sodium chloride solutions 3% and 6%; this trait may counterbalance functional implications of the elevated stomatal density estimated under salinity conditions. According to the results, there is some consensus that the induced salinity 1.5% NaCl may simulate the natural habitat of P. maritimum, therefore being a helpful framework for sustainable horticulture in coastal regions. Full article

Histone methyltransferases (SDGs) and demethylases (JMJs) are well-established regulators of transcriptional responses in plants under adverse conditions. This study characterized SDG and JMJ enzymes in the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) genome and analyzed their expression patterns under various stress conditions, including root dehydration and mechanical injury followed by CABMV or CPSMV inoculation. A total of 47 VuSDG genes were identified in the cowpea genome and classified into seven distinct classes: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, and VII. Additionally, 26 VuJMJ-coding genes were identified and categorized into their respective groups: Jmj-only, JMJD6, KDM3, KDM5, and KDM4. Analysis of gene expansion mechanisms for the studied loci revealed a predominance of dispersed duplication and WGD/segmental duplication events, with Ka/Ks ratios indicating that all WGD/segmental duplications are under purifying selection. Furthermore, a high degree of conservation was observed for these loci across species, with legumes displaying the highest conservation rates. Cis-Regulatory Element analysis of VuSDG and VuJMJ gene promoters revealed associations with Dof-type and bZIP transcription factors, both of which are known to play roles in plant stress responses and developmental processes. Differential expression patterns were observed for VuSDG and VuJMJ genes under the studied stress conditions, with the highest number of upregulated transcripts detected during the root dehydration assay. Our expression data suggest that as the referred stress persists, the tolerant cowpea accession decreases methylation activity on target histones and shifts towards enhanced demethylation. This dynamic balance between histone methylation and demethylation may regulate the expression of genes linked to dehydration tolerance. During the mechanical injury and viral inoculation assays, VuSDG and VuJMJ transcripts were upregulated exclusively within 60 min after the initial mechanical injury combined with CABMV or CPSMV inoculation, indicating an early role for these enzymes in the plant’s defense response to pathogen exposure. The current study presents a detailed analysis of histone modifiers in cowpea and indicates their role as important epigenetic regulators modulating stress tolerance. Full article

Pollution by emerging contaminants, such as micro-nanoplastics, alongside the exponential prevalence of diet-related diseases like obesity and type 2 diabetes, poses significant concerns for modern societies. There is an urgent need to explore the synergistic effects of these two factors, as unhealthy lifestyles may increase disease susceptibility and amplify the harmful impacts of pollutants on human health. Mitochondria play a crucial role in both micro-nanoplastic-induced toxicity and in the pathogenesis of obesity and type 2 diabetes. This makes them a potential target for assessing the combined effects of micro-nanoplastic exposure and poor dietary habits. To address this issue, we conducted a review of the latest investigations evaluating the effects of micro-nanoplastics in the presence of unhealthy diets. Although the evidence is limited, the reviewed studies indicate that these particles may exacerbate common metabolic disturbances associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes: elevated fasting blood glucose and insulin levels, glucose intolerance, and insulin resistance. Some studies have identified mitochondrial dysfunction as a potential underlying mechanism driving these effects. Thus, mitochondria appear to be a key link between micro-nanoplastic exposure and diet-related diseases. Assessing the function of this organelle may allow a more fitted risk assessment of the potential impacts of micro-nanoplastics. Full article

For animals that typically live in groups or family units, being isolated from their conspecifics can be stressful. Horned passalus beetles (genus Odontotaenius), inhabit decaying logs in forests in the eastern United States. While not a truly social insect, they do coinhabit logs and maintain family units, and they are known to communicate with each other using stridulations that produce varying types of “chirps”. This project investigated if the auditory environment within these logs affects the beetles, specifically by exposing larval or adult beetles in a lab to sounds of (1) other beetles chirping, (2) no sound, or (3) the sounds of crickets, for varying time periods. Beetles were weighed before and after the exposures to determine changes in body mass. Beetle larvae experienced the slowest growth rates when listening to crickets or no sound, and the highest growth rates when hearing adult chirps. Adult beetles experienced mass losses in the treatments without beetle sounds, and this finding was replicated in three different experiments. The mass loss was greatest in the experiment that had the longest duration. The fact that the mass losses were observed in both the silent treatment, plus the treatment of cricket sounds, indicates that the lack of conspecific sounds (of other passalus beetles) was driving the effect. Surprisingly, there was no added effect of nematode parasitism on adult weight loss. Also, there was no evidence that the beetles were foraging less in the treatments without beetle sound, which suggest those beetles were experiencing elevated metabolism. The reduced growth rates and lost mass are signs that the beetles experienced chronic stress when deprived of the sounds of their kin. Combined, these experiments demonstrate how the acoustic environment, and especially the sounds of other beetles, is important to the lives of these insects, perhaps owing to the fact that they live in dark tunnels. Full article

Chitosan micro-aerogels (CsM) are an innovative strategy for the controlled release of healing and anti-inflammatory ingredients. Although Bursera microphylla has anti-inflammatory activity in vitro, its in vivo effect is unknown. This study evaluated the anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects of extracts and micro-aerogels of B. microphylla. Chitosan micro-aerogels loaded with 0.5% (CsMBT-0.5) and 1% (CsMBT-1) B. microphylla ethanol extract were characterized by SEM, FTIR, TGA, and moisture absorption. Cytotoxicity was assessed by MTT assay, and anti-inflammatory effects in vitro were evaluated by NO quantification. Anti-inflammatory and wound-healing effects in vivo were tested in CD1 mice. The microparticles measured 135–180 μm. FTIR showed that the extract’s compounds remained unchanged during synthesis. TGA indicated degradation of the micro-aerogels between 250–350 °C and reduced moisture absorption when loaded with the extract. The extract inhibited NO release by 36% at 6.25 μg/mL and CsMBT-1 by 46% at 100 μg/mL (p < 0.05). The extract and CsMBT-0.5 in mice reduced ear swelling by 70% at 30 mg/mL (p < 0.0001). The extract reduced wound size by day 9, while CsMBT-0.5 accelerated wound closure from day 1 (p < 0.05), indicating that chitosan micro-aerogels were a promising anti-inflammatory and wound-healing treatment option. Full article