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Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins

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A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2023) | Viewed by 13767

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Laura Gámiz-Gracia

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Guest Editor

Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
Interests: development of analytical methods based on liquid-phase separation techniques for determination of contaminants; with special focus on mycotoxins
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. María del Mar Delgado Povedano

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Guest Editor

Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
Interests: development of analytical methods based on mass spectrometry with application in determination of contaminants; with special focus on emerging mycotoxins

Special Issue Information

During the last years, mycotoxins are among the “top 10” hazards reported by the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF). Although mycotoxin in food usually does not produce an acute adverse effect on consumers, chronic exposure may pose a significant risk. For this reason, regulations around the world have established maximum or recommended levels for different mycotoxins in foodstuffs, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins B1 and B2, HT-2 and T-2 toxins, citrinin, and ergot alkaloids. Moreover, “emerging mycotoxins” (that is, mycotoxins without established maximum levels, but with evidence of toxicity) have become a matter of concern, as they can suppose a hidden risk for consumers. Additionally, so-called “modified mycotoxins” (produced as a consequence of a detoxification strategy of the host plant of the fungus or during food processing in mammals) can be more or less toxic than the original mycotoxin and should also be considered.

All these facts necessitate determination, monitoring, and occurrence studies that allow the scientific community and the authorities to understand the exposure of the population to mycotoxins. This would help to establish tolerable daily intake and maximum levels for those mycotoxins not regulated and update those data for regulated mycotoxins.

This Special Issue aims to compile studies on the development of analytical methodologies for the determination of mycotoxins in food and feed, as well as occurrence and risk assessment studies, or review articles on this topic.

Prof. Dr. Laura Gámiz-Gracia
Dr. María del Mar Delgado Povedano
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

mycotoxins
analytical methods
occurrence study
risk assessment

Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 1182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mycotoxin Occurrence in Milk and Durum Wheat Samples from Tunisia Using Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction and Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection

by Khouloud Ben Hassouna, Ahmed M. Hamed, Jalila Ben Salah-Abbès, Kamel Chaieb, Samir Abbès, Ana M. García-Campaña and Laura Gámiz-Gracia

Toxins 2023, 15(11), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15110633 - 29 Oct 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1638

Abstract

Food and feed contamination with mycotoxins is a major public health concern. Humans and animals are exposed to these toxins by consuming contaminated products throughout their lives. In this study, a method based on dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DLLME), followed by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (LC-FLD), was validated for the determination of aflatoxins (AFs) M1, B1, B2, G1, G2, zearalenone (ZEN), and ochratoxin A (OTA). The method was applied to 150 raw cow milk samples and 90 market durum wheat samples from two Tunisian climatic regions: the littoral region (Mahdia) and the continental region (Béja). This work was carried out to obtain more surveillance data to support rapid initiatives to assure safe foods and protect consumer health and to estimate the daily exposure of the Tunisian population consuming those products. AFG2 and OTA were found in wheat with incidences of 54.4 and 11.1%, respectively. On the other side, milk samples were contaminated by AFG2, AFB1, and AFB2 with incidences of 8.7%, 2.0%, and 0.67%, respectively. Some of the samples showed OTA concentrations above the maximum limit allowed by the European Union, which represents a health risk for consumers in Tunisia, where no legislation exists about the maximum content of mycotoxins in food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins)

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14 pages, 3931 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Presence, Co-Occurrence, and Daily Intake Estimates of Aflatoxins and Fumonisins in Maize Consumed in Food-Insecure Regions of Western Honduras

by Luis Sabillón, Jackeline Alvarado, Alejandra Leiva, Rodrigo Mendoza, Raúl Espinal, John F. Leslie and Andréia Bianchini

Toxins 2023, 15(9), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15090559 - 07 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1444

Abstract

Foodborne mycotoxins are a significant food safety risk in developing countries. Our objective was to determine the occurrence of and exposure levels to aflatoxins (AFs) and fumonisins (FBs) in maize intended for human and animal consumption in food-insecure regions of western Honduras. Total AFs and FBs were quantified with a monoclonal antibody-based affinity spectrofluorimetric method. FBs were detected in 614/631 samples of maize destined for human consumption at 0.3 to 41 mg/kg (mean, 2.7 mg/kg). Of the 614 positive samples, 147 had FB levels exceeding the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advisory threshold of 4.0 mg/kg. AFs were detected in 109/631 samples of maize for human consumption with concentrations between 1.0 and 490 µg/kg (mean, 10 µg/kg). AF levels in 34 samples exceeded the FDA regulatory limit (i.e., 20 µg/kg). The average probable daily intake of AFs in western Honduras ranged from 0 to 260 ng/kg body weight/day, and for FBs, the average probable daily intake ranged from 17 to 53 μg/kg body weight/day. AFs and FBs co-occurred in 106/631 samples with 60 samples containing both toxins at levels greater than the FDA regulatory levels. Samples of maize intended for animal feed had significantly higher AF (mean, 22 µg/kg) and FB (mean, 7.6 mg/kg) contamination levels than those observed in samples destined for human consumption. Thus, the maize supply chain in western Honduras is contaminated with mycotoxins at levels that pose health risks to both humans and livestock. More effective mycotoxin surveillance and implementation of effective mitigation strategies are needed to reduce mycotoxin contamination and exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins)

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16 pages, 1629 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Major Mycotoxins in Foodstuffs from Algeria

by Azem Belasli, Marta Herrera, Agustín Ariño and Djamel Djenane

Toxins 2023, 15(7), 449; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15070449 - 06 Jul 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1526

Abstract

Cereal-based products, nuts and dried fruits are staple foods for the Algerian population. However, these foodstuffs may be sources of harmful mycotoxins, with negative impacts on human health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrences and levels of aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1 and G2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) in 198 samples of nuts, dried fruits and cereal products commercialized in Algeria, as well as to calculate the estimated daily intakes (EDIs). Aflatoxins were found in 26.2% of the nut samples (in peanuts and almonds, but not in walnuts), 38.7% of the dried fruit samples (in dried figs, dates and bradj pastries) and 47.9% of the cereal-based products (in rechta noodles and metlou bread, but not in couscous), with mean concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.49 μg/kg. OTA occurred in 16.9% of the cereal-based samples, averaging 0.15 μg/kg, but it was not detected in nuts or dried fruits. The incidence of DON in the cereal-based products was 85.9% on average, with a mean concentration from 90 to 123 μg/kg. ZEA mycotoxin was not detected in any samples. Four peanut samples exceeded the EU maximum level for aflatoxin B1 set at 2 μg/kg, while three of them surpassed the maximum level for the sum of aflatoxins (4 μg/kg). Traditional foods such as bradj, rechta and metlou were significant sources of aflatoxins, with MOE (margin of exposure) values ranging from 648 to 9333, indicating a potential risk for the Algerian population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins)

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14 pages, 1787 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Ochratoxin A Defective Aspergillus carbonarius Mutants as Potential Biocontrol Agents

by Belén Llobregat, Luis González-Candelas and Ana-Rosa Ballester

Toxins 2022, 14(11), 745; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14110745 - 31 Oct 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2038

Abstract

Aspergillus carbonarius is one of the main species responsible for wine, coffee and cocoa toxin contamination. The main mycotoxin produced by this fungus, ochratoxin A (OTA), is a secondary metabolite categorized as a possible carcinogen because of its significant nephrotoxicity and immunosuppressive effects. A polyketide synthase gene (otaA) encodes the first enzyme in the OTA biosynthetic pathway. It is known that the filamentous fungi, growth, development and production of secondary metabolites are interconnected processes governed by global regulatory factors whose encoding genes are generally located outside the gene clusters involved in the biosynthesis of each secondary metabolite, such as the veA gene, which forms part of the VELVET complex. Different fungal strains compete for nutrients and space when they infect their hosts, and safer non-mycotoxigenic strains may be able to outcompete mycotoxigenic strains during colonization. To determine the possible utility of biopesticides based on the competitive exclusion of mycotoxigenic strains by non-toxigenic ones, we used A. carbonarius ΔotaA and ΔveA knockout mutants. Our results showed that during both in vitro growth and infection of grapes, non-mycotoxigenic strains could outcompete the wild-type strain. Additionally, the introduction of the non-mycotoxigenic strain led to a drastic decrease in OTA during both in vitro growth and infection of grapes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins)

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14 pages, 348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Validation of LC-Q-TOF-MS Methodology to Determine Mycotoxin Biomarkers in Human Urine

by Nuria Dasí-Navarro, Manuel Lozano, Sabrina Llop, Ana Esplugues, Alessandra Cimbalo, Guillermina Font, Lara Manyes, Jordi Mañes and Pilar Vila-Donat

Toxins 2022, 14(10), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14100651 - 20 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1922

Abstract

Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs is a health concern worldwide and monitoring human exposure to mycotoxins is a key concern. Most mycotoxins and their metabolites are excreted in urine, but a reliable detection method is required, considering the low levels present in this biological sample. The aim of this work is to validate a sensitive methodology capable of simultaneously determining ten targeted mycotoxins as well as detecting untargeted ones by using Liquid Chromatography coupled to Quadrupole Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS). The targeted mycotoxins were: enniatin A, B, A1, and B1, beauvericine, aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2, and ochratoxin A. Several extraction procedures such as liquid-liquid extraction, dilute and shoot, and QuEChERS were assessed. Finally, a modified simple QuEChERS extraction method was selected. Creatinine adjustment and matrix-matched calibration curves are required. The limit of detection and limit of quantification values ranged from 0.1 to 1.5 and from 0.3 to 5 ng/mL, respectively. Recoveries achieved were higher than 65% for all mycotoxins. Later, the method was applied to 100 samples of women’s urine to confirm the applicability and determine their internal exposure. The untargeted mycotoxins most found were trichothecenes, zearalenones, and ochratoxins. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins)

18 pages, 1341 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis and Comparison of Rapid Methods for the Determination of Ochratoxin a Levels in Organs and Body Fluids Obtained from Exposed Mice

by Zsuzsanna Szőke, Bianka Babarczi, Miklós Mézes, István Lakatos, Miklós Poór, Eszter Fliszár-Nyúl, Miklós Oldal, Árpád Czéh, Kornélia Bodó, György Nagyéri and Szilamér Ferenczi

Toxins 2022, 14(9), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14090634 - 13 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2211

Abstract

Mycotoxins are bioaccumulative contaminants impacting animals and humans. The simultaneous detection of frequent active exposures and accumulated mycotoxin level (s) in exposed organisms would be the most ideal to enable appropriate actions. However, few methods are available for the purpose, and there is a demand for dedicated, sensitive, reliable, and practical assays. To demonstrate the issue, mice were exposed to a relevant agent Ochratoxin A (OTA), and accumulated OTA was measured by fine-tuned commercial assays. Quantitative high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and flow cytometry assays have been developed/modified using reagents available as commercial products when appropriate. Assays were performed on excised samples, and results were compared. Accumulated OTA could be detected and quantified; positive correlations (between applied doses of exposure and accumulated OTA levels and the results from assays) were found. Dedicated assays could be developed, which provided comparable results. The presence and accumulation of OTA following even a short exposure could be quantitatively detected. The assays performed similarly, but HPLC had the greatest sensitivity. Blood contained higher levels of OTA than liver and kidney. We demonstrate that specific but flexible and practical assays should be used for specific/local purposes, to measure the exposure itself and accumulation in blood or organs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins)

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13 pages, 328 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Deterministic and Probabilistic Dietary Exposure Assessment to Deoxynivalenol in Spain and the Catalonia Region

by Jose A. Gallardo, Sonia Marin, Antonio J. Ramos, German Cano-Sancho and Vicente Sanchis

Toxins 2022, 14(7), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070506 - 20 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1912

Abstract

Deoxynivalenol (DON) remains one of the most concerning mycotoxins produced by the Fusarium genus due to the wide occurrence in highly consumed cereal-based food and its associated toxicological effects. Previous studies conducted in Spain and other European countries suggested that some vulnerable groups such as children could be exceeding the tolerable daily intakes. Thus, the aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive and updated dietary exposure assessment study in Spain, with a specific analysis in the region of Catalonia. Cereal-based food samples collected during 2019 were analysed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry for multi-mycotoxin detection including DON and its main metabolites and derivatives. Consumption data were gathered from the nation-wide food surveys ENALIA and ENALIA2 conducted in Spain, and a specific survey conducted in Catalonia. The data were combined using deterministic and semi-parametric probabilistic methods. The results showed that DON was widely present in cereal-based food highly consumed in Spain and the Catalonia region. Exposure to DON among the adult population was globally low; however, among infants aged 3–9 years, it resulted in the median of 192 ng/kg body weight/day and the 95th percentiles of 604 ng/kg body weight/day, that would exceed the most conservative safety threshold for infants. Bread and pasta were the main contributing foodstuffs to the global exposure to DON, even among infants; thus, those foods should be considered a priority for food control or to develop strategies to reduce the exposure. In any case, further toxicological and epidemiological studies are required in order to refine the safety thresholds accounting for the sensitivity of the infant population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Determination of Mycotoxins)

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