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Advances in Swimming Pool Hygiene Safety and Spa Research
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Advances in Swimming Pool Hygiene Safety and Spa Research

A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Water and One Health".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 9560

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Athena Mavridou

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Guest Editor
Department of Medical Laboratories, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
Interests: water quality; water microbiology; recreational waters
Dr. Georgia Mandilara

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Guest Editor
National School of Public Health, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
Interests: microbiology; public health; salmonella; listeriosis; foodborne disease epidemiology
Prof. Dr. Vincenzo Romano Spica

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Public Health Unit, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Rome, Italy
Interests: recreational waters; disinfection; surveillance; monitoring; hygiene; public health; biotechnology; innovation
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce that the "11th Conference on Swimming Pools and Spas", which will be held in Athens during October 2025, has been granted a Special Issue with MDPI’s Water for the publication of selected papers to be presented at the conference. This is a wonderful opportunity to release a Special Issue focusing on topics related to swimming pools and spas. We eagerly anticipate your submissions on the following thematic areas:

  • Water microbiology.
  • Water chemistry.
  • Disinfection.
  • Swimming and health—pros and cons.
  • Air quality of indoor pools.
  • Construction issues.
  • Innovative technologies in design and maintenance.
  • Regulations.
  • Use of alternative water sources and the impact on regulations.
  • Accidents and safety.
  • Risk assessment and management in swimming pools and similar environments.
  • Sustainability and environmental considerations, considering a One Health perspective.
  • Swimmers' behaviour.
  • Ethical issues.
  • The use of pools related to tourism.
  • Thermal waters.
  • Natural pools.
  • Pool management in emergency situations, focused or diffused, e.g., COVID pandemic.
  • Artificial intelligence and swimming pools—"Next generation" swimming pools.

Dr. Athena Mavridou
Dr. Georgia Mandilara
Prof. Dr. Vincenzo Romano Spica
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Water is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • swimming pools
  • hygiene safety
  • water microbiology
  • water chemistry
  • disinfection

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 3529 KB  
Article
Typing of Legionella Species Using FT-IR Spectroscopy
by Marceli Zuk, Jochen Kurz, Sarah Uhle, Laurine Wehmeier, Markus Petzold and Stefan Zimmermann
Water 2026, 18(4), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18040515 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 626
Abstract
Legionella species are ubiquitous bacteria found worldwide in water, moist environments, soils, and compost. Infection occurs through the inhalation of aerosols, leading to either Pontiac fever or Legionnaires’ disease (LD). Current routine diagnostics typically combine culture-based isolation with Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Time-of-Flight [...] Read more.
Legionella species are ubiquitous bacteria found worldwide in water, moist environments, soils, and compost. Infection occurs through the inhalation of aerosols, leading to either Pontiac fever or Legionnaires’ disease (LD). Current routine diagnostics typically combine culture-based isolation with Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for species identification and the Latex Agglutination Test (LAT) for serotyping. However, this workflow is fragmented: MALDI-TOF MS lacks serogroup-specific resolution, while LAT relies on subjective visual interpretation. Therefore, this study evaluated Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) as a rapid, high-resolution typing method for Legionella isolates to assess its potential as a single-step diagnostic tool. A total of 200 clinical and environmental Legionella isolates were analyzed using FT-IR, including L. pneumophila serogroups (SG) 1–15 and various non-pneumophila species. Spectral data were analyzed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA). While MALDI-TOF MS provided accurate species identification, FT-IR spectroscopy demonstrated superior typing capabilities by successfully distinguishing L. pneumophila SG 1 distinct from the SG 2–15 complex and allowing for clear discrimination of most non-pneumophila species. Additionally, FT-IR resolved isolates that showed ambiguous or non-reactive results in LAT. These findings demonstrate that FT-IR overcomes the serotyping limitations of MALDI-TOF MS and offers a more objective, cost-efficient extension to the current multi-step routine, potentially closing the diagnostic gap between simple species identification and deep strain characterization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Swimming Pool Hygiene Safety and Spa Research)
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16 pages, 1818 KB  
Article
Biomarkers for Tracking Organic Matter Maturity in Therapeutic Muds (Peloids): A Comparison of Natural and Spa-Scaled Systems
by Emilija Vukićević, Nikola Burazer, Jovana Roganović, Tijana Mutić, Gorica Veselinović, Branimir Jovančićević and Gordana Gajica
Water 2026, 18(4), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18040457 - 10 Feb 2026
Viewed by 597
Abstract
Peloid maturation is governed by geological settings, duration of water–sediment interaction (microbial reworking), and thermomineral water properties, with molecular distributions providing insights into transformation mechanisms. To assess site-specific biomarker maturity, geochemical parameters were applied to five Serbian therapeutic muds, including spa peloids (Bujanovac, [...] Read more.
Peloid maturation is governed by geological settings, duration of water–sediment interaction (microbial reworking), and thermomineral water properties, with molecular distributions providing insights into transformation mechanisms. To assess site-specific biomarker maturity, geochemical parameters were applied to five Serbian therapeutic muds, including spa peloids (Bujanovac, Jošanica, Kanjiža) and natural systems (Vrujci, Rusanda). Mineralogy was determined via X-ray diffraction, and organic matter (OM) was characterized by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry of n-alkanes, steranes and hopanes. Samples are mostly clay-rich, providing favorable catalytic conditions for biomarker transformations. Bujanovac shows a higher plant OM signature (n-C29 maximum) and elevated biomarker maturity (high Ts/Tm, near-equilibrium C29 S/(S + R)), likely inherited from volcanically influenced source material. Jošanica exhibits high CPI but low Ts/Tm and C29 S/(S + R), indicating largely immature OM despite four years of spa aging. Kanjiža shows unexpectedly high apparent maturity after one-day aging, with a pronounced UCM and C31 S/(S + R) (0.58), consistent with incorporation of migrated petrogenic hydrocarbons. Vrujci displays coherent maturity due to prolonged water–sediment interaction, clay-rich mineralogy, extended aging, and regional geothermal gradients. Rusanda exhibits decoupled parameters (CPI 3.91, C29 S/(S + R) 0.69), indicative of hydrocarbon overprinting. Overall, integrating biomarker geochemistry with mineralogy, depositional context, and local thermal/geological conditions provides a robust framework to evaluate peloid maturation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Swimming Pool Hygiene Safety and Spa Research)
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14 pages, 733 KB  
Article
Occurrence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in Tourist Swimming Pools in Andalusia, Spain
by Antonio Doménech-Sánchez, Àlex González-Alsina, Margalida Mateu-Borrás and Sebastián Albertí
Water 2026, 18(2), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18020186 - 10 Jan 2026
Viewed by 628
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a key indicator of hygienic and operational deficiencies in swimming pools, particularly in tourist facilities with high and variable user loads. This study reports the results of a four-year regulatory surveillance program (2016–2019) assessing P. aeruginosa contamination in tourist swimming [...] Read more.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a key indicator of hygienic and operational deficiencies in swimming pools, particularly in tourist facilities with high and variable user loads. This study reports the results of a four-year regulatory surveillance program (2016–2019) assessing P. aeruginosa contamination in tourist swimming pools in Andalusia, Spain. The program involved 14 hotels and 58 unique installations. A total of 2053 water samples collected from different installation types (outdoor and indoor pools, whirlpools, and cold-plunge pools) were analyzed using standardized ISO methods within the framework of Spanish legislation, and prevalence comparisons were based on proportion tests. The overall prevalence of P. aeruginosa was 5.1%, with marked differences among installation types, reflecting both variation in contamination rates and unequal sampling intensity. Whirlpools consistently showed the highest contamination rates, whereas indoor pools and cold-plunge pools exhibited lower prevalence. No significant differences were observed between chlorine- and bromine-treated pools, and contaminated samples were detected across the full range of disinfectant concentrations, including values within regulatory limits. Temporal analysis revealed that apparent seasonal peaks were installation-dependent rather than reflecting a uniform seasonal trend. Winter detections were confined to indoor pools and whirlpools, which remain operational year-round, while outdoor pools and cold-plunge pools were underrepresented during the low season due to reduced sampling. A marked increase in prevalence was observed in 2019, driven mainly by summer months and high-risk installations; however, this rise was not directly associated with tourist volume and does not support causal inference. These findings highlight the importance of installation-specific and operational factors in shaping P. aeruginosa contamination patterns. The study underscores the need for targeted surveillance strategies focusing on high-risk installations and for cautious interpretation of seasonal patterns in datasets derived from routine regulatory monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Swimming Pool Hygiene Safety and Spa Research)
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Review

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24 pages, 486 KB  
Review
Managing Bathing Loads and Circulation Rates in Commercial Swimming Pools: Rationale and Perspective from UK and Europe
by Martin Wood, Lester P. Simmonds, Rachel M. Chalmers, Kim Feldfoss, Alexander Kämpfe, Maarten G. A. Keuten, Brian Krogh, Tim I. Marjoribanks, Alexander Reuß and Ole Ø. Smedegård
Water 2026, 18(6), 713; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18060713 - 18 Mar 2026
Viewed by 314
Abstract
Circulation of pool water via a treatment plant is critical for maintaining pool water in a condition that is a safe and attractive for bathers. It is also one of the pool operations that is most costly in terms of energy used and [...] Read more.
Circulation of pool water via a treatment plant is critical for maintaining pool water in a condition that is a safe and attractive for bathers. It is also one of the pool operations that is most costly in terms of energy used and associated carbon footprint. In this study, we compare and contrast circulation rate guidelines developed for the UK and for other northern and southern European countries and, where possible, provide an explanation of the underlying rationale. We focus on the management of turbidity-forming material and Cryptosporidium oocysts. We reveal that the parameters used to assess safe operational bathing load are relatively consistent across Europe, based on physical space requirements for bathing and other constraints such as lifeguarding. Circulation rate, on the other hand, is based on either rule-based turnover times, or a more flexible approach based on the volume of water to be treated per bather. The latter offers scope for innovation and energy savings, with the proviso that safe water is maintained for bathers. The guidance in several countries suggests reducing circulation rate when the pool is not being used by bathers. We conclude that a more progressive risk-based approach to pool management, building on these findings, offers significant opportunities for pool operators to run pools better and should be a priority for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Swimming Pool Hygiene Safety and Spa Research)
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36 pages, 1832 KB  
Review
Pool Safety Regulations in Europe: Challenges Towards a Framework for Sustainable Seawater Utilization in Public Swimming Pools
by Tatsiana Pobat, Georgia D. Mandilara, Federica Nigro Di Gregorio, Federica Valeriani, Enrico Veschetti, Emanuele Ferretti, Athena Mavridou and Vincenzo Romano Spica
Water 2025, 17(17), 2544; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17172544 - 27 Aug 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6383
Abstract
The use of seawater in public swimming pools could offer a more sustainable solution given the challenges posed by climate change and the growing scarcity of potable water across Europe. However, the swimming pool sector currently lacks a unified European legislative framework and [...] Read more.
The use of seawater in public swimming pools could offer a more sustainable solution given the challenges posed by climate change and the growing scarcity of potable water across Europe. However, the swimming pool sector currently lacks a unified European legislative framework and faces significant fragmentation, particularly regarding the use of seawater. This scoping review applies a methodology to collect and analyze the international and national regulations of 23 coastal European countries relevant to swimming pool water safety. It provides an overview of existing European legislation on the use of seawater in public swimming pools and outlines the permitted disinfection methods. The review also highlights the highly variable and fragmented regulatory frameworks for microbiological and chemical water quality parameters, as well as the limits imposed on disinfection by-products (DBPs). Furthermore, it addresses the potential risks associated with seawater use in pools, with particular attention to the toxicity of DBPs that may form under such conditions. The findings underscore the urgent need for legislative updates in the pool sector and highlight the potential for developing specific European regulations. These would help harmonize practices across the sector and improve the management of both sustainability and public health in recreational aquatic environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Swimming Pool Hygiene Safety and Spa Research)
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