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Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 March 2026 | Viewed by 22290

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nitin Muttil

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Guest Editor

Institute for Sustainable Industries and Liveable Cities, Victoria University, Melbourne 8001, Australia
Interests: urban water management; resilient urban water systems; climate change mitigation; nature based solutions; sustainable and liveable cities; machine learning techniques
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Upaka Rathnayake

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering and Construction, Faculty of Engineering and Design, Atlantic Technological University, F91 YW50 Sligo, Ireland
Interests: watershed modeling; hydrology; urban water management; climate adaptation; AI-driven engineering solution
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As cities grow and climate change intensifies, the challenges of sustainable urban water management are becoming more urgent. Urban areas are vulnerable to water-related issues like flooding, droughts, and pollution, which affect both the environment and public health. Traditional water management methods, often reliant on engineered solutions, can reduce immediate risks but fail to address the interconnectedness of water, ecology, and urban resilience. Over time, these methods can be costly and environmentally harmful and are unable to meet the growing demands of expanding populations while also failing to adapt to climate change.

Recently, there has been a growing recognition of the need for more sustainable practices, such as Nature-based Solutions (NbS), in urban water management. These solutions stem from the understanding that nature holds many answers to urban water challenges. NbS offer innovative alternatives that use natural processes to manage water sustainably while providing co-benefits like enhanced biodiversity, improved public spaces, and climate resilience.

This Special Issue explores how NbS can address urban water challenges by integrating natural systems into city infrastructure. NbS, such as green roofs, permeable pavements, wetlands, urban forests, etc., help regulate water flow, improve water quality, and restore ecosystems. They also offer cost-effective, adaptive strategies to cope with climate variability, supporting long-term resilience and providing effective interventions to protect, manage, and/or restore natural or modified systems, including cities, rivers, watersheds, and coastlines. We invite original research and reviews to inspire dialogue, collaboration, and innovation across sectors, encouraging cities to adopt nature-based approaches in their water management strategies.

Dr. Nitin Muttil
Dr. Upaka Rathnayake
Guest Editors

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Keywords

sustainable urban water management
nature-based solutions
floods and droughts
water quality improvement
climate resilience
green infrastructure
environmental sustainability
coastal management
liveable cities
sustainable development goals (SDGs)

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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19 pages, 9984 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Siltation Risk of Irrigation Canals: A Case Study of the Irrigation Canal in Golmud

by Zexiang Sui, Zhiming Zhang, Jianping Yang, Pengpeng Du, Yinghua Ma, Ping Li, Zhaocai He and Fang Han

Water 2026, 18(7), 772; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18070772 - 25 Mar 2026

Viewed by 254

Abstract

Siltation in irrigation canals adversely affects overflow capacity and accessibility, making its identification crucial for dredging, prevention, and maintenance, among other purposes. In this study, the siltation risks of Golmud irrigation canals were assessed from three perspectives: hydrodynamic impact, anthropogenic impact, and greening impact. The assessment factors included sediment deposition risk, bed erosion risk, proximity to public administration and services, proximity to residential areas, proximity to commercial services, and proximity to green spaces. The entropy weight method and TOPSIS method were employed to calculate the comprehensive siltation risk level, with model validation confirming a high overall accuracy of 94%. The results showed that among the six factors, proximity to public administration and services had the greatest influence on siltation, with a weight of 0.29. Additionally, the most vulnerable siltation locations were primarily in the city center, reflecting the susceptibility of urban areas to anthropogenic activities. This study develops a rapid and objective risk-scanning tool that couples hydrodynamics with land-use factors, providing a standardized technical pathway for the checking of large-scale urban infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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27 pages, 6634 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nature-Based Urban Drainage Solutions Using Industrial Waste-Incorporated Pervious Concrete Pavements

by Nivodi Ratnapala, Nandika Miguntanna, Nadeeka Miguntanna and Upaka Rathnayake

Water 2026, 18(6), 675; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18060675 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 330

Abstract

Pervious concrete pavements have gained increasing attention as a sustainable stormwater management solution due to their ability to reduce runoff volume and improve water quality through infiltration. This study investigates the stormwater runoff treatment potential and performance efficiency of pervious concrete pavements incorporating industrial waste materials, namely recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), ceramic waste (C), and waste tires (T), as partial replacements for natural coarse aggregates. Concrete mixes were prepared by replacing 10%, 20%, and 30% of the coarse aggregate volume with each waste material, and the results were compared with normal pervious concrete. Stormwater runoff treatment performance was evaluated by analyzing key water quality parameters, including total suspended solids (TSSs), pH, turbidity, color, and electrical conductivity (EC), using collected urban runoff samples. In addition, mechanical properties (compressive, tensile, and flexural strength) and hydraulic properties (porosity and infiltration rate) were assessed to ensure structural and functional suitability. The results demonstrate that pervious concrete pavements incorporating industrial waste materials exhibit effective pollutant removal while maintaining acceptable mechanical performance in accordance with ASTM standards. Among the investigated pervious concrete types, pavements containing 10% recycled concrete aggregate and 10% ceramic waste showed superior reductions in TSS, turbidity, and color compared to other waste-based and normal pervious concrete mixes. This study demonstrated significant reductions in particulate pollutants (TSS, turbidity, and color), while increases in pH and electrical conductivity highlighted early-age ion leaching from the concrete matrix, underscoring both the treatment benefits and the need for long-term monitoring under realistic deployment conditions. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of industrial waste-based pervious concrete pavements as an environmentally sustainable and effective solution for urban stormwater management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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25 pages, 5229 KB

Open AccessArticle

Low-Carbon Layout Optimization and Scheme Comparison of LID Facilities in Arid Regions Based on NSGA-III

by Yuchang Shang, Jie Liu, Qiao Chen and Lirong Li

Water 2026, 18(1), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/w18010050 - 23 Dec 2025

Viewed by 544

Abstract

In arid regions, rainfall is scarce, summer-concentrated, and prone to extreme events, while evaporation exceeds precipitation, creating fragile ecosystems that need scientific stormwater management for flood resilience. Sponge cities, through the implementation of green infrastructure, can alleviate urban flooding, improve rainwater utilization, and enhance the urban ecological environment. Under the “dual carbon” target, sponge city construction has gained new developmental significance. It must not only ensure core functions and minimize construction costs but also fully leverage its carbon reduction potential, thereby serving as a crucial pathway for promoting urban green and low-carbon development. Therefore, this study focused on Xining, a typical arid city in Northwest China, and couples the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-III (NSGA-III) with the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) to construct a multi-objective optimization model for Low Impact Development (LID) facilities. The layout optimization design of LID facilities is conducted from three dimensions: life cycle cost (LCC), rainwater utilization rate (K), and carbon emission intensity (CI). Hydrological simulations and scheme optimizations were performed under different design rainfall events. Subsequently, the entropy-weighted TOPSIS method was utilized to evaluate and compare these optimized schemes. It is shown by the results that: (1) The optimized LID schemes achieved a K of 76.2–80.43%, an LCC of 2.413–3.019 billion yuan, and a CI of −2.8 to 0.19 kg/m²; (2) Compared with the no-LID scenario, the optimized scheme significantly enhanced hydrological regulation, flood mitigation, and pollutant removal. Under different rainfall return periods, the annual runoff control rate increased from 64.97% to 80.66–82.23%, with total runoff reduction rates reaching 46.41–49.26% and peak flow reductions of 45–47.62%. Under the rainfall event with a 10-year return period, the total number of waterlogging nodes decreased from 108 to 82, and the number of nodes with a ponding duration exceeding 1 h was reduced by 62.5%. The removal efficiency of total suspended solids (TSS) under the optimized scheme remained stable above 60%. The optimized scheme is highly adaptable to the rainwater management needs of arid areas by prioritizing “infiltration and retention”. Vegetative swales emerge as the primary facility due to their low cost and high carbon sink capacity. This study provides a feasible pathway and decision-making support for the low-carbon layout of LID facilities in arid regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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24 pages, 5172 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reviving Urban Landscapes: Harnessing Pervious Concrete Pavements with Recycled Materials for Sustainable Stormwater Management

by Thilini A. Gunathilake, Kushan D. Siriwardhana, Nandika Miguntanna, Nadeeka Miguntanna, Upaka Rathnayake and Nitin Muttil

Water 2025, 17(21), 3096; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17213096 - 29 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1172

Abstract

This study examines the effectiveness of pervious concrete pavements as a sustainable and cost-effective stormwater management technique, particularly by incorporating locally sourced recycled materials into their design. It evaluates the stormwater treatment potential of three pervious concrete pavement types incorporating recycled plastic, glass, and crushed concrete aggregates, with six design variations produced using 25% and 50% replacements of coarse aggregates from these materials. The key properties of pervious concrete, namely compressive strength, porosity, unit weight, and infiltration, and key water quality indicators, namely pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total suspended solids (TSS), colour, turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrate (NO₃⁻), and orthophosphate (PO₄³⁻), were analysed. Results indicated an overall improvement in the quality of the stormwater runoff passed through all pervious concrete pavements irrespective of composition. Notable reductions in turbidity, TSS, colour, COD, PO₄³⁻, and NO₃⁻ underscored the effectiveness of pervious concrete containing waste materials in the treatment of stormwater runoff. Pervious concrete pavements with 25% recycled concrete exhibited optimal performance in reducing TSS, COD, and PO₄³⁻ levels, while the 50% recycled concrete variant excelled in diminishing turbidity. However, the study found that the use of recycled materials in pervious concrete pavements affects properties like compressive strength and infiltration rate differently. While incorporating 25% and 50% recycled concrete aggregates did not significantly reduce compressive strength, the effectiveness of stormwater treatment varied based on the mix design and type of recycled material used. Thus, this study highlights the potential of utilizing recycled waste materials in pervious concrete pavements for sustainable stormwater management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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24 pages, 16262 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimal Water Resource Allocation for Urban Water Systems in the Context of Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction and Recycled Water Utilization

by Chenkai Cai, Baoxian Zheng, Jianqun Wang, Zihan Gui and Hao Qian

Water 2025, 17(17), 2568; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17172568 - 30 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1334

Abstract

Recycled water is commonly considered an environmentally friendly alternative water source for urban water systems, which can not only serve as a solution for water scarcity, but also reduce wastewater discharge from sewage systems. However, owing to the high degree of energy consumption during recycled water production, the utilization of recycled water may be detrimental to greenhouse gas emission reduction. In this work, we conduct a detailed investigation into greenhouse gas emissions from different sources in a typical multisource urban water system in China. Furthermore, we develop an optimization model for water resource allocation based on the rime optimization algorithm and regret theory. The results show that although greenhouse gas emissions from recycled water exceed those from other sources, their impact can be eliminated through rational water resource allocation. Specifically, compared with the original water resource allocation, the optimal results effectively reduce pollutant emissions by 7.6~11.1% without excessively increasing water resource shortages and greenhouse gas emissions. Additionally, both subjective preferences and recycled water utilization conditions have significant impacts on the optimization results, which should be carefully selected according to practical situations and technologies. Overall, the methods developed in this study provide a new general framework for the water resource allocation of multisource urban water systems in the context of greenhouse gas emission reduction and recycled water utilization, which can be employed in other areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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18 pages, 6445 KB

Open AccessArticle

Green Stormwater Infrastructure (GSI) Performance Assessment for Climate Change Resilience in Storm Sewer Network

by Teressa Negassa Muleta and Marcell Knolmar

Water 2025, 17(17), 2510; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17172510 - 22 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1748

Abstract

Urban flooding and the management of stormwater present significant challenges that necessitate innovative and sustainable solutions. This research examines the effectiveness of green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) for resilient storm sewer systems using the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM), based on customized local climate scenarios. Daily climate data downscaled by four CMIP6 models—CESM2, GFDL-CM4, GFDL-ESM4, and NorESM2-MM—was used. The daily data was disaggregated into 15 min temporal resolution using the HyetosMinute R-package. Two GSI types—bio-retention and rain gardens—were evaluated with a maximum coverage of 30%. The analysis focuses on two future climate scenarios, SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5, predicted under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) framework. The performance of the stormwater network was assessed for mid-century (2041–2060) and late century (2081–2100), both before and after integration of GSI. Three performance metrics were applied: node flooding volume, number of nodes flooded, and pipe surcharging duration. The simulation results showed an average reduction in flooding volumes ranging between 86 and 98% over the area after integration of GSI. Similarly, reductions ranging between 78 and 89% and between 75 and 90% were observed in pipe surcharging duration and number of nodes vulnerable to flooding, respectively, following GSI. These findings underscore the potential of GSI in fostering sustainable urban water management and enhancement of sustainable development goals (SDGs). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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18 pages, 4123 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urban Growth and River Course Dynamics: Disconnected Floodplain and Urban Flood Risk in Manohara Watershed, Nepal

by Shobha Shrestha, Prem Sagar Chapagain, Kedar Dahal, Nirisha Adhikari, Prajjwal Shrestha and Laxmi Manandhar

Water 2025, 17(16), 2391; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17162391 - 13 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1911

Abstract

Human activities and river course change have a complex reciprocal interaction. The river channel is altered by human activity, and these alterations have an impact on the activities and settlements along the riverbank. Understanding the relationship between urbanization and changes in river morphology is crucial for effective river management, safeguarding the urban environment, and mitigating flood hazards. In this context, this study has been conducted to investigate the interrelationship between morphological dynamics, built-up growth, and urban flood risk along the Manohara River in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The Sinuosity Index was used to analyze variation in river courses and instability from 1996 to 2023. Built-up change analysis is carried out using supervised maximum likelihood classification method and rate of change is calculated for built-up area growth (2003–2023) and building construction between 2003 and 2021. Flood hazard risk manning was carried out using flood frequency estimation method integrating HEC-GeoRAS modeling. Linear regression and spatial overlay analysis was carried out to examine the interrelationship between river morphology, urban growth, and fold hazed risk. In recent years (2016–2023), the Manohara River has straightened, particularly after 2011. Before 2011, it had significant meandering with pronounced curves and bends, indicating a mature river system. However, the SI value of 1.45 in 2023 and 1.80 in 2003 indicates a significant straightening of high meandering over 20 years. A flood hazard modeling carried out within the active floodplain of the Manohara River shows that 26.4% of the area is under high flood risk and 21% is under moderate risk. Similarly, over 10 years from 2006 to 2016, the rate of built-up change was found to be 9.11, while it was 7.9 between 2011 and 2021. The calculated R² value of 0.7918 at a significance level of 0.05 (with a p value of 0.0175, and a standard error value of 0.07877) indicates a strong positive relationship between decreasing sinuosity and increasing built-up, which demonstrates the effect of built-up expansion on river morphology, particularly the anthropogenic activities of encroachment and haphazard constructions, mining, dumping wastes, and squatter settlements along the active floodplain, causing instability on the river course and hence, lateral shift. The riverbank and active floodplain are not defined scientifically, which leads to the invasion of the river area. These activities, together with land use alteration in the floodplain, show an increased risk of flood hazards and other natural calamities. Therefore, sustainable protection measures must be prioritized in the active floodplain and flood risk areas, taking into account upstream–downstream linkages and chain effects caused by interaction between natural and adverse anthropogenic activities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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16 pages, 1563 KB

Open AccessArticle

Hydrological Benefits of Green Roof Retrofitting Policies: A Case Study of an Urban Watershed in Brazil

by Thiago Masaharu Osawa, Fábio Ferreira Nogueira, Stephanie Caroline Machado Gonzaga, Fernando Garcia Silva, Sabrina Domingues Miranda, Brenda Chaves Coelho Leite and José Rodolfo Scarati Martins

Water 2025, 17(13), 1936; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131936 - 28 Jun 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1381

Abstract

Green roofs (GRs) are emerging as effective tools for mitigating urban runoff, particularly in cities facing challenges related to increased impervious surfaces and flooding risks. This study evaluates the potential hydrological performance of GR retrofitting in São José dos Campos, Brazil, based on municipal legislation, focusing on the effects of reducing the Effective Impervious Area (EIA) in urban watersheds. Using a range of projected EIA reduction scenarios (Mandatory, Incentivized, and Ideal), this study compares key hydrological indicators such as peak flow attenuation, runoff volume reduction, and hydrograph delay during rainfall events with different return periods. The results show that retrofitting with GRs significantly attenuates peak flows and delays runoff, with the ‘Ideal’ scenario (EIA = 16%) achieving peak flow reductions of up to 41% and runoff volume reductions of 35%. However, the effectiveness of GRs diminishes for high-intensity rainfall events, suggesting that GRs are most effective for frequent, low-intensity storms. These findings demonstrate the potential of GRs in reducing flooding risks in urban environments, highlighting the importance of integrating GRs into broader sustainable drainage systems. This study further emphasizes that while financial support is crucial for promoting GR adoption, it alone is not sufficient. Policies should be complemented by educational efforts and urban regulatory measures to ensure widespread adoption and long-term impact. This research provides urban planners and stakeholders with evidence to enhance urban resilience, sustainability, and effective flood risk management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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29 pages, 4752 KB

Open AccessArticle

Is the Indus Basin Drying? Disparities in the Environmental Flow, Inflow, and Outflow of the Basin

by Naveed Ahmed, Haishen Lu, Bojan Đurin, Nikola Kranjčić, Oluwafemi E. Adeyeri, Muhammad Shahid Iqbal and Youssef M. Youssef

Water 2025, 17(10), 1557; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17101557 - 21 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 6289

Abstract

Under the 1960 Indus Water Treaty, Pakistan owned the Western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab) and India the Eastern rivers (Ravi, Suleimanki, and Beas). Pakistan’s per capita water availability will reduce from 5260 m³ to less than 1000 m³ by 2025, causing water stress. The Indus Basin’s water availability was examined at inflow and outflow gauges between 1991 and 2015. The Indus Basin inflow and outflow gauges indicated exceptionally low and high flows before, during, and after floods. Lower flow values vary greatly for the Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum rivers. During Rabi and Kharif, the Indus and Chenab rivers behaved differently. Lower flows (Q90 to Q99) in Western Rivers are more periodic than higher flows (Q90 to Q99) and medium flows (Q90 to Q99). The outflow gauge Kotri reported 35% exceedance with zero flows during pre-flood and post-flood seasons and 50% during flood season, indicating seasonal concerns. Outflow and inflow both fell, particularly after the year 2000, according to data collected over a longer period (1976–2015). Low storage and regulating upstream capacity caused the Indus Basin outflow to reach 28 MAF (million acre feet) between 1976 and 2015, which is 70% more than the permitted 8.6 MAF downstream Kotri gauge. For 65 percent of the year, the Indus Basin does not release any water downstream of Kotri. As a result, the ecosystem relies on an annual influx of at least 123 MAF to sustain itself, and an outflow of 8.6 MAF from the Indus Basin necessitates an inflow of 113.51 MAF. At high-flow seasons, the Indus Basin experiences devastating floods, yet it dries out at a frightening rate before and after floods. The preservation of ecosystems and riparian zones downstream depends on the large environmental flows in eastern rivers. This is achievable only by fully implementing IWT and improving water management practices at western rivers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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Review

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Open AccessReview

Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Drainage: A Systematic Review of Sizing and Monitoring Methods

by André Ricardo Cansian, Diego A. Guzmán, Altair Rosa and Juliana de Toledo Machado

Water 2025, 17(17), 2524; https://doi.org/10.3390/w17172524 - 25 Aug 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5783

Abstract

Urban areas face escalating hydrological risks due to climate change, urban sprawl, and aging stormwater infrastructures. In this context, Nature-Based Solutions (NbSs), especially Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDSs), have emerged as viable strategies to enhance water resilience and sustainability. However, the literature still lacks standardized and scalable methodologies for their design and performance monitoring. This study conducts a systematic review following the PRISMA protocol, combined with bibliometric and co-occurrence analyses, to identify prevailing approaches in the sizing and monitoring of NbS-based SUDSs. Based on the peer-reviewed literature indexed in Scopus and Web of Science from 2020 to 2024, the findings reveal an increasing integration of hydrological modeling with artificial intelligence, remote sensing, and IoT-based real-time monitoring. Despite this progress, challenges remain in methodology validation, data availability, and system adaptability. The review underscores the need for hybrid, context-sensitive frameworks that integrate empirical and simulated data to support decision-making in urban drainage planning and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Water Management: The Role of Nature-Based Solutions)

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