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Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention

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A special issue of Water (ISSN 2073-4441). This special issue belongs to the section "Urban Water Management".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (27 January 2023) | Viewed by 41282

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Cristina M. Monteiro

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Universidade Católica Portuguesa, CBQF - Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina – Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Rua Diogo Botelho 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal
Interests: green roofs; urban water management; water runoff; water quality; water efficiency; rainwater harvesting; urban ecosystems; green infrastructure
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Prof. Dr. Cristina Matos Silva

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Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: green infrastructure; green roofs; green walls; ecosystem services; energy and water efficiency; rainwater harvesting; economic evaluation of green infrastructure; payback period
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Green infrastructure in urban areas has been substantially reduced and replaced by concrete and impermeable surfaces, bringing numerous stormwater management problems. Efficient urban stormwater management systems to reduce rainwater runoff quantity and improve water runoff quality are needed in order to face the present climate change scenario. Green infrastructure has been used as a sustainable solution to help urban water management and bring natural catchment areas to an urban context. Currently, research on green infrastructure is focused on finding efficient and sustainable systems, using native vegetation adapted to local conditions. Rainwater management and harvesting for reuse are also under consideration. Additionally, the efficiency of solutions combining both these technologies must be evaluated carefully and is a challenging area of research.

This Special Issue of Water will focus on green infrastructure to retain rainwater and its capacity to decrease water runoff to urban water management systems and improve water quality in urban environments. The Special Issue will consider the following:

Assessment of water runoff quality;
Monitoring of rainwater retention in green infrastructures;
Models for stormwater runoff in urban areas and runoff coefficient;
Pilot-scale and long-term experience with urban green roofs systems;
Impact of green infrastructures on urban water management;
Testing procedures and materials for stormwater management systems.

Dr. Cristina M. Monteiro
Prof. Dr. Cristina Matos Silva
Guest Editors

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Keywords

Green roofs
Urban water management
Water runoff
Water quality
Water reuse
Rainwater harvesting
Energy and hydric efficiency
Ecosystems services
Green infrastructures

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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28 pages, 3394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Water Efficiency Households Retrofit Proposal Based on Rainwater Quality in Acapulco, Mexico

by Mariana Martínez-Castrejón, Enrique J. Flores-Munguía, Oscar Talavera-Mendoza, América L. Rodríguez-Herrera, Omar Solorza-Feria, Osbelia Alcaraz-Morales, Jazmin A. López-Díaz and Giovanni Hernández-Flores

Water 2022, 14(18), 2927; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14182927 - 19 Sep 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3069

Abstract

Climate change, urbanization, and population growth, particularly in urban areas such as Acapulco, Mexico, put pressure on water availability, where although surrounded by water, the inhabitants lack enough good-quality water, especially in the rainy season. In addition, water scarcity, socioeconomic factors, and infrastructure problems limit the satisfaction of water demand in this context, e.g., operational issues in the water treatment plants and problems in the distribution network caused by hurricanes. The objectives of this research were: (i) to determine the rainwater quality in Acapulco, Mexico; (ii) to propose a domestic water efficiency retrofit (WER) design implementing a rainwater harvesting system (RWHS); and (iii) to determine the RWHS efficiency in terms of economic savings, considering rainwater’s social acceptance for domestic consumptive uses. The WER design was developed in an SFH in Acapulco, Mexico. The RWHS catchment surface area was 29 m². The device comprises a first-rain separator (20 L) and a storage tank (1200 L). The rainwater harvesting potential (RWHP) was evaluated during the 2020 and 2021 rainy seasons, whereas the harvested rainwater quality (HRWQ) was analyzed in samples from 2021. Alkalinity, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, and heavy metals and potentially toxic metalloids were analyzed. Additionally, 168 surveys were applied to SFH owners to evaluate WER acceptance. Results showed that the RWHP was ca. 44 and 21 L/m² in 2020 and 2021, respectively. All the rainwater quality parameters met the World Health Organization guidelines for consumptive uses except for drinking water. The perception study showed a 95% willingness to adopt the WER. Due to the RWHP and the HRWQ, the WER of SFHs is a promising solution to address Acapulco hydric stress under the nature-based solutions approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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11 pages, 1108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Examining How a Smart Rainwater Harvesting System Connected to a Green Roof Can Improve Urban Stormwater Management

by Nandan Shetty, Mark Wang, Robert Elliott and Patricia Culligan

Water 2022, 14(14), 2216; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14142216 - 14 Jul 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4604

Abstract

This study quantified how a smart rainwater harvesting cistern that collected stormwater runoff from a green roof reduced stormwater flow into a combined sewer system (CSS) during wet-weather flow. The studied smart rainwater harvesting cistern collected runoff from a green roof located in Bronx, New York City; it used the Continuous Monitoring and Adaptive Control (CMAC) smart sensor provided by OptiRTC, Inc., to regulate the water flow from the cistern. The cistern collected stormwater runoff from the roof, usually draining completely after 24 h of dry weather. However, the smart sensor used weather forecasting data, and if additional rainfall was predicted immediately following another storm, the cistern only drained a specific amount, calibrated to mitigate the CSO. Five years of data from the cistern system were used to understand the role of the cistern’s smart sensor in reducing stormwater flow into the CSS during storms. The study results demonstrate that connecting the smart cistern system to the green-roof maximized stormwater collection (compared with the green roof alone) for storm sizes between 2 mm and 25 mm and for antecedent dry-weather periods greater than 2 days. The total of 65.2% of rainfall retained over the monitoring period by the green roof alone increased to 75.6% when considering the total stormwater retained and detained together by the green roof and cistern, thus yielding a 10% improvement. The study results also demonstrate that the smart sensor’s use of weather forecasting data failed to improve system performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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21 pages, 2731 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bioretention Systems Optimization and Design Characterization Model Using Fuzzy Rough Set Theory

by Fredelino A. Galleto, Jr., Melvin K. Cabatuan, Aaron Don M. Africa, Marla C. Maniquiz-Redillas, Jay M. Navaluna, John Christian Q. Herrera, Aristotle T. Ubando, Alvin B. Culaba and Mark Christian Felipe R. Redillas

Water 2022, 14(13), 2037; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14132037 - 25 Jun 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2932

Abstract

Urban stormwater has become a persistent concern on a global scale due to its adverse environmental implications. It is the prime vector of aquatic contaminants worldwide that causes pollutants when water bodies drain. Bioretention systems are increasingly used to alleviate setbacks associated with stormwater run-off in urban locales. It has played a substantial role in the implementation of low impact development (LID), a concept that addresses urban stormwater problems caused by land changes and development. The use of LID technologies is an innovative approach. However, it is beset with challenges, such as the insufficiency of data on rainfall distribution and difficulty in interpreting data. To address these research gaps, the present study developed a fuzzy rough set data algorithm for bioretention systems. Event mean concentration calculations and fuzzification of rainfall were performed to produce a rough set-based decision rule. Using the Weibull probability distribution, fuzzification of rainfall and parameter data, rule induction, and Preece testing, bioretention design considerations were determined. The bioretention characterizations generated evident pollutants present in the catch basin before and after filtration. In addition, the bioretention characterization conducted in this study was able to reduce the number of tests needed for rainfall identification based on the different attributes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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10 pages, 1472 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Rainwater Harvesting for Irrigation of Tennis Courts: A Case Study

by Carla Pimentel-Rodrigues and Armando Silva-Afonso

Water 2022, 14(5), 752; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14050752 - 26 Feb 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3293

Abstract

It has become evident that, during this century, climate change will continue, affecting all regions of the planet. The expected impacts over the next few decades may differ from region to region, with some areas becoming humid and others drier. In regions such as the Mediterranean basin, the main expected impacts of climate change will be prolonged droughts and an increase in the intensity and frequency of heavy rains. Measures of mitigation and adaptation are particularly important in urban environments, where more than half of the population lives, and rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) are considered to be a very suitable solution to these problems. However, the published studies have mainly focussed on buildings, with very limited references to the interest of its application in large urban infrastructure. Based on consumption and precipitation data, this article presents a study on the implementation of an RWHS in a large-scale sports infrastructure located in the city of Cascais (Portugal) intended for the practice of tennis, with 12 brick dust fields, some of them covered. The average annual consumption of potable water for watering the tennis courts is 5500 m³, and the results show that the RWHS can reduce this consumption by >50%, in addition to other expected benefits, such as the known effect of these systems in reducing flood peaks in the area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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17 pages, 9220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dynamic Release of Solutes from Roof Bitumen Sheets Used for Rainwater Harvesting

by Uri Nachshon, Meni Ben-Hur, Daniel Kurtzman, Roee Katzir, Lior Netzer, Guy Gusser and Yakov Livshitz

Water 2021, 13(24), 3496; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13243496 - 8 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2981

Abstract

Bitumen waterproof sheets are widely used to seal building roofs. Previous works have focused on the mechanical-physical properties of bitumen sheets, as well as their aging and degradation processes, and their impact on sealing properties of the buildings. Due to a growing need over recent years to use rooftops in urban environments for rainwater harvesting purposes, it is highly important to better characterize the quality of the harvested water from the bitumen covered roofs, and to shed more light on the impact of bitumen degradation processes on the release of various components to the harvested roof water. In the present study, the extracted organic and inorganic solutes from bitumen-covered roofs by water flow on the bitumen sheets were examined through a series of experiments, including measurements from the roofs of buildings in the center of Israel during the winter of 2019–2020. The results indicated high levels of organic and inorganic solute loads in the roof water during the first flush of the first rain of the winter, with maximal electric conductivity readings at the order of 4 dS/m. However, it was shown that following the first flush, a ~20 mm of cumulative rainfall was sufficient to wash off all the summers’ accumulated solutes from the roof. After this solute flushing of the roof, harvested rainwater along the winter was of good quality, with electric conductivity readings in the range of 0.04–0.85 dS/m. Moreover, it was shown that bitumen sheets which were exposed to direct sun radiation emitted greater loads of solutes, likely a result of elevated aging and degradation processes. The findings of the present research point to the need to find efficient ways to isolate roof bitumen sheets from direct sun radiation and to design rainwater harvesting systems that will not collect the water drained from the first flush. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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13 pages, 3271 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evapotranspiration Measurement and Estimation of Crop Coefficient for Native Plant Species of Green Roof in the Tropics

by Ming Fai Chow, Muhammad Fadhlullah Abu Bakar, Jee Khai Wong and Lloyd Ling

Water 2021, 13(12), 1669; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13121669 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3721

Abstract

Extensive green roof is one of the sustainable urban stormwater management alternatives to manage and mitigate the urban surface runoff. In order to implement green roofs more effectively, suitable plant species and substrate components for tropical climate must be identified. The aim of this study is to investigate the evapotranspiration (ET) behaviors in extensive green roofs based on different substrate types and local native plant species. Four green roof test beds containing pro-mixing pot and burn soils were each vegetated with Axonopus Compressus (grass) and Portulaca Grandiflora (sedum). A weather station with soil moisture sensors was installed to measure the weather and soil moisture data. The results showed that the mean ET rates for grass-pot soil, sedum-pot soil, grass-burn soil and sedum-burn soil were 1.32 ± 0.41 mm/day, 2.31 ± 0.72 mm/day, 1.47 ± 0.39 mm/day and 2.31 ± 0.43 mm/day, respectively. It is noted that environmental parameters such as ambient temperature, solar radiation and wind speed showed significantly positive relationship (p value < 0.01) with ET rates of green roofs except relative humidity. The crop coefficients (K_s) for the studied green roof plant species are estimated based on actual and reference evapotranspiration rates. The sedum planted in burn soil showed the highest crop coefficient (0.64), followed by sedum in pot soil (0.62), grass in burn soil (0.39) and grass in pot soils (0.37), respectively. The findings in this study also showed that substrate with better water retention capacity generally improved the K_s values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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8 pages, 2806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Monitoring and Control System for Stormwater Management of Urban Green Infrastructure

by Mingkun Xie, Ruijun Wang, Jing Yang and Yuning Cheng

Water 2021, 13(11), 1438; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13111438 - 21 May 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3653

Abstract

Urban green infrastructure (UGI) can be used as a sustainable stormwater management approach. UGI can bring numerous ecological benefits to cities, including increased urban resilience, increased availability of water resources, and optimization of habitats. This paper used empirical research methods to describe an Internet of things (IoT)-based UGI monitoring and control system for stormwater management (MCSSWM). Using a Xuzhou-based practical project in China as a case study, we introduce the construction process, method, and monitoring results of the system. The results showed that the MCSSWM could be beneficial for UGI ecological performance evaluation and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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Review

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19 pages, 1343 KiB

Open AccessReview

Green Roofs as an Urban NbS Strategy for Rainwater Retention: Influencing Factors—A Review

by Cristina M. Monteiro, Ana Mafalda Mendes and Cristina Santos

Water 2023, 15(15), 2787; https://doi.org/10.3390/w15152787 - 1 Aug 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4089

Abstract

There has been a rapid development in studies of nature-based solutions (NbS) worldwide, which reveals the potential of this type of solution and the high level of interest in its implementation to improve the resilience of cities. Much relevant information and many important results are being published, and it is now possible to see their diverse benefits and complexity. Several authors highlight their role in urban areas not just in temperature control, but also in human health, ecosystem development and water management. However, in the current reality of cities, where water use is being (and will be) constantly challenged, analyzing NbS advantages for the urban water cycle is crucial. This study performed an intense review of the NbS literature from 2000 to 2021, to identify their contributions to the improvement of urban water cycle management and thus provide a solid information base for distinct entities (public institutions, private investors and the urban population in general) to disseminate, apply and justify their implementation. In general terms, the urban water cycle embraces not only the abstraction of water for urban consumption, but also its return to nature and all the stages in between, including water reuse and stormwater management. This review will highlight the important benefits that NbS in general, and green roofs in particular, provide to urban stormwater control, a key factor that contributes to urban sustainability and resilience in order to face future climate challenges. The novelty of the present review paper falls within the conclusions regarding the crucial role that NbS develop in urban water management and the main features that must be tested and technically enhanced to improve their functioning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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16 pages, 1983 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Constructed Wetlands as a Solution for Sustainable Sanitation: A Comprehensive Review on Integrating Climate Change Resilience and Circular Economy

by Ahmed M. N. Masoud, Amani Alfarra and Sabrina Sorlini

Water 2022, 14(20), 3232; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14203232 - 13 Oct 2022

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7048

Abstract

About eighty percent of wastewater is discharged into the environment untreated. Many challenges are decelerating solving the global sanitation problem, such as the financial limitations and lack of technical capacities. Parallel to this, many countries are facing a growing demand on their limited water resources. Higher water demand and limited availability leads to over-abstraction and deterioration in the availability and quality water resources. In this situation, wastewater can be a new water source. Therefore, there is a growing interest in finding low-cost, easy-to-operate and sustainable sanitation solutions. Constructed wetlands (CWs) in recent years have proved their capability in the sanitation sector as an appropriate sanitation system in different contexts, CWs have proved their ability to treat several types of wastewaters for several decades. Several benefits and facts, such as the low construction and operational costs of CWs, low-energy, and less operational requirements, have raised the interests in CWs as a treatment technology. Several studies have investigated CWs suitability based on different sustainability indices (technical, social, environmental, etc.). In this paper, a comprehensive review covers the definition, types, treatment processes, sustainability criteria, limitations, and challenges of CWs. The paper also focuses on climate change resilience and circular economic approach under the technical and financial criteria, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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24 pages, 1586 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hydrological Performance of Green Roofs in Mediterranean Climates: A Review and Evaluation of Patterns

by Joana Silva, Teresa A. Paço, Vítor Sousa and Cristina M. Silva

Water 2021, 13(18), 2600; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13182600 - 21 Sep 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3547

Abstract

The capacity of green roofs to intercept rainfall, and consequently store and slow runoff resulting in a reduction in flood risk, is one of their main advantages. In this review, previous research related to the influence of green roofs on the hydrological cycle is examined with a special focus on studies for Mediterranean climate conditions (Csa and Csb according to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification). This climate is characterized by short and intense rainfall occurrences which, along with the increased area of impervious surface on Mediterranean regions, intensify the risk of flooding, particularly in the cities. The analysis covers the variables rainfall retention (R, %), runoff delay (RD, min or h), peak delay (PD, min or h), peak attenuation (PA, %), and runoff coefficient (RC, −), in relation to physical features of the green roof such as layers, substrate depth, slope, and vegetation, as well as, weather conditions, such as monthly temperature and monthly precipitation. Following a statistical analysis, some patterns for the average rainfall retention (%) were found in the published literature for green roofs under Mediterranean climate conditions—namely, that the most significant variables are related to the substrate depth, the existence of certain layers (root barrier, drainage layer), the origin of the vegetation, the types of green roofs (extensive, semi-intensive, intensive), and the precipitation and temperature of the location. Moreover, a multivariate analysis was conducted using multiple linear regression to identify the set of green roof features and weather conditions that best explain the rainfall retention (%), taking into consideration not only the studies under Mediterranean conditions but all climates, and a similar pattern emerged. Recommendations for future research include addressing the effect of physical features and weather conditions on the other variables (RD, PD, PA, RC) since, although present in some studies, they still do not provide enough information to reach clear conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Green Infrastructure as a Technology for Rainwater Retention)

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