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17 pages, 4422 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 Data to Detect Irrigation Events: Riaza Irrigation District (Spain) Case Study

by Anna Balenzano, Giuseppe Satalino, Francesco Paolo Lovergine, Annarita D’Addabbo, Davide Palmisano, Riccardo Grassi, Ozlem Ozalp, Francesco Mattia, David Nafría García and Vanessa Paredes Gómez

Water 2022, 14(19), 3046; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14193046 - 27 Sep 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2966

Abstract

This paper investigates the use of high resolution (~100 m) surface soil moisture (SSM) maps to detect irrigation occurrences, in time and space. The SSM maps have been derived from time series of Copernicus Sentinel-1 (S-1) and Sentinel-2 (S-2) observations. The analysis focused [...] Read more.

This paper investigates the use of high resolution (~100 m) surface soil moisture (SSM) maps to detect irrigation occurrences, in time and space. The SSM maps have been derived from time series of Copernicus Sentinel-1 (S-1) and Sentinel-2 (S-2) observations. The analysis focused on the Riaza irrigation district in the Castilla y León region (Spain), where detailed information on land use, irrigation scheduling, water withdrawal, meteorology and parcel borders is available from 2017 to 2021. The well-documented data basis has supported a solid characterization of the sources of uncertainties affecting the use of SSM to map and monitor irrigation events. The main factors affecting the irrigation detection are meteo-climatic condition, crop type, water supply and spatial and temporal resolution of Earth observation data. Results indicate that approximately three-quarters of the fields irrigated within three days of the S-1 acquisition can be detected. The specific contribution of SSM to irrigation monitoring consists of (i) an early detection, well before vegetation indexes can even detect the presence of a crop, and (ii) the identification of the irrigation event in time, which remains unfeasible for vegetation indexes. Therefore, SSM can integrate vegetation indexes to resolve the irrigation occurrences in time and space. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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13 pages, 3596 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Precision Dripping Irrigation System on the Phenology and Yield Indices of Sweet Maize Hybrids

by Árpád Illés, Atala Szabó, Seyed Mohammad Nasir Mousavi, Csaba Bojtor, Attila Vad, Endre Harsányi and Lúcia Sinka

Water 2022, 14(16), 2480; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14162480 - 12 Aug 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2171

Abstract

Sweet maize is an annual plant that is extremely useful and economical for planting and harvesting. However, maize stands are damaged quickly in the case of nutrient and water deficiency. This research was carried out under dripping irrigation conditions and control plots without [...] Read more.

Sweet maize is an annual plant that is extremely useful and economical for planting and harvesting. However, maize stands are damaged quickly in the case of nutrient and water deficiency. This research was carried out under dripping irrigation conditions and control plots without irrigation, involving seven different maize hybrids. The obtained results showed no existing variation in the dry matter content of cob (DMC) between the irrigated and non-irrigated treatments. Correlation analysis showed that increasing DMC causes decreasing moisture content of cob (MC) of sweet maize with irrigated and non-irrigated treatments. DMC and MC are important factors in the yield index on irrigation treatments. Biplots showed that the Dessert R72 (10.82) hybrid had maximum yield and effect on Brix/Abbe and Brix/Atago Pal-1, while the Messenger hybrids (42.96) had maximum effect on MC. It was also shown that DMC and MC are important factors in the yield index on irrigation treatments on hybrids. The Noa (37.97) and Honey hybrids (27.88) had minimum effect and performance on non-irrigation and irrigation treatments. The Messenger (11.25) and SF1379 hybrids (10.5) had a maximum performance on Brix Abbe and Brix Pal in the irrigation treatment and Dessert R78 (13.5), the Messenger hybrid (11.8) had a maximum performance on Brix/Abbe and Brix/Atago Pal-1 in non-irrigation treatment. The Dessert R78 (13.5) is the best-performing hybrid in terms of the yield of Brix/Abbe and Brix/Atago Pal-1 in the performed irrigation treatments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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21 pages, 7169 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Improved Empirical Model for Estimating the Geometry of the Soil Wetting Front with Surface Drip Irrigation

by Irouri Cristóbal-Muñoz, Jorge Víctor Prado-Hernández, Antonio Martínez-Ruiz, Fermín Pascual-Ramírez, David Cristóbal-Acevedo and David Cristóbal-Muñoz

Water 2022, 14(11), 1827; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14111827 - 6 Jun 2022

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3631

Abstract

Wetting pattern geometry is useful in determining the spacing between emitters and the irrigation time in drip irrigation systems. This research aimed to generate an empirical model to estimate the width and depth of the wetting front in surface drip irrigation based on [...] Read more.

Wetting pattern geometry is useful in determining the spacing between emitters and the irrigation time in drip irrigation systems. This research aimed to generate an empirical model to estimate the width and depth of the wetting front in surface drip irrigation based on experimental tests in a cube-shaped container with transparent walls in soils with a sandy clay loam texture, with hydraulic conductivities from 2.316 to 3.945 cm h⁻¹, and organic matter contents from 1.7 to 2.8%, and different irrigation conditions: discharge rates of 1.44, 2.90, 3.00, 3.75, and 4.00 L h⁻¹, initial moisture levels between permanent wilting point and field capacity, and irrigation times from 0.58 to 9.50 h. The experimental conditions and the strategy for measuring the wetting front and soil moisture are detailed so the experiment is verifiable. The proposed model performed better than five other empirical models, with average values of 3 cm for the root mean square error and 0.88 for the Nash and Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient. The generated model is efficient and simple and can be a very useful tool for the design and operation of surface drip irrigation systems in soils with conditions similar to those of this study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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18 pages, 5236 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Determining Economical Irrigation Depths in a Sandy Field Using a Combination of Weather Forecast and Numerical Simulation

by Hassan M. Abd El Baki and Haruyuki Fujimaki

Water 2021, 13(23), 3403; https://doi.org/10.3390/w13233403 - 2 Dec 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2072

Abstract

Advancement of modern technologies has given numerical simulations a crucial role to effectively manage irrigation. A new numerical scheme to determine irrigation depths was incorporated into WASH 2D, which is a numerical simulation model of crop response to irrigation. Based on two predicted [...] Read more.

Advancement of modern technologies has given numerical simulations a crucial role to effectively manage irrigation. A new numerical scheme to determine irrigation depths was incorporated into WASH 2D, which is a numerical simulation model of crop response to irrigation. Based on two predicted points of cumulative transpiration—water price and quantitative weather forecast—the scheme can optimize an irrigation depth in which net income is maximized. A field experiment was carried out at the Arid Land Research Center, Tottori, Japan, in 2019, to evaluate the effectiveness of the scheme on net income and crop production compared to a tensiometer-based automated irrigation system. Sweetcorn (Zea mays L., Amaenbou 86) was grown in three water balance lysimeters per each treatment, filled with sandy soil. The scheme could achieve a 4% higher net income, due to a 7% increase in green fodder yield, and an 11% reduction in irrigation amount, compared with the automated irrigation method. These results indicate that the numerical scheme, in combination with quantitative weather forecasts, can be a useful tool to determine irrigation depths, maximize net incomes which are farmers’ targets, and avoid large investments that are required for the automated irrigation system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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18 pages, 1688 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Rootstock Effects on Water Relations of Young Almond Trees (cv. Soleta) When Subjected to Water Stress and Rehydration

by Sara Álvarez, Hugo Martín, Enrique Barajas, José Antonio Rubio and Gaetano Alessandro Vivaldi

Water 2020, 12(12), 3319; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12123319 - 26 Nov 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3795

Abstract

Rootstocks with size controlling potential are being used in newly planted intensive almond orchards. Due to increased water scarcity, characterizing the response of these rootstocks to water deficit is required. The current work aims to assess whether the rootstock can improve their drought [...] Read more.

Rootstocks with size controlling potential are being used in newly planted intensive almond orchards. Due to increased water scarcity, characterizing the response of these rootstocks to water deficit is required. The current work aims to assess whether the rootstock can improve their drought tolerance. We investigated the morphological and physiological response of P. dulcis “Soleta” either self-rooted or grafted on Rootpac-20 rootstock. Plant responses were evaluated during a water stress period (withholding irrigation for 20 days) and subsequent recovery in potted plants under greenhouse conditions. Self-rooted plants had a higher capacity to control vigour than plants grafted onto Rootpac-20, both under full irrigation and no irrigation conditions. Stressed plants exhibited severe dehydration, as indicated by lower leaf water potential and relative water content. Removing irrigation reduced stomatal conductance in grafted and self-rooted plants by a similar extent, suggesting an efficient stomatal control, while the reduction in the net photosynthesis rate was more marked in grafted plants compared to non-grafted plants. Self-rooted plants under water stress increased their root to shoot ratio and water use efficiency, which are positive aspects for growth and survival of these plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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29 pages, 4213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Collaborative Action and Social Organization in Remote Rural Regions: Autonomous Irrigation Arrangements in the Pamirs of Tajikistan

by Andrei Dörre

Water 2020, 12(10), 2905; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102905 - 17 Oct 2020

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3398

Abstract

This paper proposes a bottom–up “nexus medium” perspective to examine and understand social organization and how socio-ecological challenges in remote rural regions are dealt with in communities that receive only limited external support. While “nexus mediums” constitute substances, matter, or objects that combine [...] Read more.

This paper proposes a bottom–up “nexus medium” perspective to examine and understand social organization and how socio-ecological challenges in remote rural regions are dealt with in communities that receive only limited external support. While “nexus mediums” constitute substances, matter, or objects that combine manifold vital meanings and can be seen as socially constructed and materialized arenas of social interaction, autonomous resource management is seen as a means of local social organization. Taking water as the nexus medium of choice allows us to generate locally informed insights about the role of this scarce resource for the everyday life and social organization of communities inhabiting arid rural areas. This reasoning will be exemplified by three local case studies conducted during empirical research in the Pamirs of Tajikistan utilizing a mix of qualitative methods. The findings reveal how many fundamental everyday-life-related aspects and activities of the studied communities are related to water, and how these communities are organized around common water use and management arrangements that are based on joint decision-making, shared benefits and responsibilities, and collaborative action. The “nexus medium” concept appears to be an appropriate approach for research that seeks to understand from a local perspective how communal living is organized and how socio-ecological challenges are addressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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15 pages, 1151 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Mixed Substrate and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi on Photosynthetic Efficiency, Nutrient and Water Status and Yield in Tomato Plants Irrigated with Saline Reclaimed Waters

by María José Gómez-Bellot, Beatriz Lorente, María Jesús Sánchez-Blanco, María Fernanda Ortuño, Pedro Antonio Nortes and Juan José Alarcón

Water 2020, 12(2), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/w12020438 - 6 Feb 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3587

Abstract

The use of reclaimed water (RW) is considered as a means of maintaining agricultural productivity under drought conditions. However, RW may contain high concentrations of salts. The use of some practices, such as biofertilizers and organic substrates, is also becoming increasingly important in [...] Read more.

The use of reclaimed water (RW) is considered as a means of maintaining agricultural productivity under drought conditions. However, RW may contain high concentrations of salts. The use of some practices, such as biofertilizers and organic substrates, is also becoming increasingly important in agricultural. production. The aim of this study was to evaluate the application of a mixed substrate (with coconut fibre) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on water relations, nutrient uptake and productivity in tomato plants irrigated with saline RW in a commercial greenhouse. Saline RW on its own caused a nutrient imbalance and negatively affected several physiological parameters. However, the high water-holding capacity of coconut fibre in the mixed substrate increased water and nutrient availability for the plants. As a consequence, leaf water potential, gas exchange, some fluorescence parameters (PhiPSII, F_v’/F_m’, qP and ETR) and fruit size and weight improved, even in control irrigation conditions. The use of AMF improved only some parameters because of the low percentage of colonization, suggesting that AMF effectiveness in commercial field conditions is slower and dependent of several factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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Review

Jump to: Research

37 pages, 2739 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperReview

Dynamic Modeling of Crop–Soil Systems to Design Monitoring and Automatic Irrigation Processes: A Review with Worked Examples

by Jorge Lopez-Jimenez, Alain Vande Wouwer and Nicanor Quijano

Water 2022, 14(6), 889; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14060889 - 12 Mar 2022

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4975

Abstract

The smart use of water is a key factor in increasing food production. Over the years, irrigation has relied on historical data and traditional management policies. Control techniques have been exploited to build automatic irrigation systems based on climatic records and weather forecasts. [...] Read more.

The smart use of water is a key factor in increasing food production. Over the years, irrigation has relied on historical data and traditional management policies. Control techniques have been exploited to build automatic irrigation systems based on climatic records and weather forecasts. However, climate change and new sources of information motivate better irrigation strategies that might take advantage of the new sources of information in the spectrum of systems and control methodologies in a more systematic way. In this connection, two open questions deserve interest: (i) How can one deal with the space–time variability of soil conditions? (ii) How can one provide robustness to an irrigation system under unexpected environmental change? In this review, the different elements of an automatic control system are described, including the mathematical modeling of the crop–soil systems, instrumentation and actuation, model identification and validation from experimental data, estimation of non-measured variables and sensor fusion, and predictive control based on crop–soil and weather models. An overview of the literature is given, and several specific examples are worked out for illustration purposes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Irrigation Strategies for Sustainable Water Management)

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