Somatic Embryogenesis in Conifers: One Clade to Rule Them All?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Taxonomic Considerations
3. Zygotic Embryogenesis in Conifers
4. Somatic Embryogenesis in Conifers
5. Somatic Embryogenesis in Ephedrales, Gnetales, and Welwitschiales
6. Somatic Embryogenesis in Araucariales
7. Somatic Embryogenesis in Cupressales
Order | Species | Explant Used | Formulation of Culture Medium | Steps of the Protocol | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Araucariales | Araucaria angustifolia | Zygotic embryos | LP salts + vitamins + 0.5 g L−1 nicotinic acid + 45 µM 2,4-D + 11.0 µM KIN + 11.0 µM BAP + 500 mg L−1 casein + 1% PEG 8000 | Embryogenic culture induction | Astarita et al. [51] |
Zygotic embryos | LP salts + 6.8 µM 2,4-D + 2.3 µM KIN + 2.2 µM BAP + 1% PEG 8000 + 0.9 µM sucrose + 38 µM ABA | Embryogenic culture induction | Astarita et al. [62] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + vitamins + 5 µM 2,4-D + 2 µM BAP + 2 µM KIN BM salts + vitamins + 6% and 9% PEG 3350 + 6% and 9% BAP + 1 µM KIN | Embryogenic culture induction Precotyledonary somatic embryo development | dos Santos et al. [52] | ||
Zygotic embryos | LP salts + vitamins + 5 µM 2,4-D + 2 µM BAP + 2 µM KIN LP salts + vitamins + 5.0 µM ABA + 1% PEG 4000 | Embryogenic culture induction Precotyledonary somatic embryo development | Silveira et al. [65] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + vitamins + 5 µM 2,4-D + 2 µM BAP + 2 µM KIN BM salts + vitamins + 5 µM 2,4-D + 2 µM BAP + 2 µM KIN + 9% PEG + 9% maltose | Embryogenic culture induction Early precotyledonary somatic embryo development | Steiner et al. [58] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + vitamins + 2.0 µM 2,4-D + 0.5 µM BAP + 0.5 µM KIN + 0.5 g L−1 casein + 1.0 µM Spd + 10. µM Spm | Induction of stage-three proembryogenic masses (PEM III) | Silveira et al. [66] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + vitamins + 0.5 g L−1 casein + 1 µM Put | Embryogenic culture induction | Steiner et al. [62] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + 5 µM 2,4-D + 2 µM BAP + 2 µM KIN | Embryogenic culture induction | dos Santos et al. [54] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + 5.5 µM myo-inositol + 0.008 µM nicotinic acid + 0.005 µM pyridoxyn-HCl + 0.05 µM glycine + 0.006 µM thiamine-HCl + 6.8 mM L-glutamine + 0.05% casein hydrolysate + 3% sucrose | Embryogenic culture induction | Maurer et al. [108] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + 0.005 g L−1 nicotinic acid + 0.005 g L−1 pyridoxine-HCl + 0.001 g L−1 thiamine + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 3 g L−1 gelrite MSG salts + 5 µM 2,4-D + 2 µM BAP + 2 µM KIN MSG salts + vitamins + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 3 g L−1 gelrite + 120 µM ABA + 9% maltose + 7% PEG 4000 + 3% sucrose + 0.15% AC | Embryogenic culture induction Embryogenic proliferation Proembryo formation | Schlögl et al. [68] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + vitamins + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 0.1 g L−1 L-glutamine + 3 g L−1 sucrose + 5 µM 2,4-D + 2 µM BAP + 2 µM KIN MSG salts + vitamins + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 90 g L−1 maltose + 70 g L−1 PEG 3350 + 1 µM GSH + 100 µM GSSG + 30 g L−1 sucrose | Embryogenic culture induction Proembryo formation | Vieira et al. [59] | ||
Zygotic embryos | LP salts + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 0.45 g L−1 L-glutamine BM salts + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 1.0 g L−1 L-glutamine DKM salts + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 30 µM fluridone DKM salts + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 90 g L−1 maltose + 70 g L−1 PEG 3350 | Embryogenic culture induction Embryogenic culture proliferation Pre-maturation Proembryo formation | Farias-Soares et al. [109] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + 1.46 µM L-glutamine + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 3 g L−1 gelrite + 1.0 µM 2,4-D + 0.5 µM BAP MSG salts + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 3 g L−1 AC + 70 g L−1 maltose + 90 g L−1 PEG 4000 | Embryogenic culture induction Cotyledonary somatic embryo development | Jo et al. [110] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + 120 µM ABA + 90.0 g L−1 PEG 4000 + 3.0 g L−1 maltose | Early precotyledonary somatic embryo development | Elbl et al. [111] | ||
Zygotic embryos | BM salts + 1.0 g L−1 L-glutamine + 1.0 g L−1 myo-inositol + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 30 g L−1 sucrose BM salts + 1.0 g L−1 L-glutamine + 1.0 g L−1 myo-inositol + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 50 g L−1 maltose + 100 g L−1 PEG 4000 + 100 μM ABA | Embryogenic culture induction Precotyledonary somatic embryo development | Fraga et al. [69] | ||
Zygotic embryos | DKM salts + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 30.0 g L−1 sucrose + 30 μM fluridone DKM salts + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 90.0 g L−1 maltose or 90.0 g L−1 lactose + 70.0 g L−1 PEG | Embryogenic culture induction Proembryo formation | Steiner et al. [57] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 3% sucrose MSG salts + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 3% sucrose + 120 µM ABA + 7% maltose + 9% PEG 4000 | Embryogenic culture induction Early somatic embryo development | Navarro et al. [112] | ||
Podocarpus lamberti | Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + BM vitamins + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 0.1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 30 g L−1 sucrose MSG salts + BM vitamins + 1.46 g L−1 L-glutamine + 0.1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 50 g L−1 maltose + 100 g L−1 PEG 4000 + 2 g L−1 AC + 75 µM ABA + GSH 500 µM | Embryogenic culture induction Cotyledonary somatic embryo development | Fraga et al. [73] | |
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + BM vitamins + 30 g L−1 sucrose MSG salts + BM vitamins + 50 g L−1 maltose + 100 g L−1 PEG 4000 + 2 g L−1 AC + 75 µM ABA | Embryogenic culture induction Cotyledonary somatic embryo development | Guerra et al. [74] | ||
Welwitschiales | Welwitschia mirabilis | Zygotic embryos | MS salts + 0.5 g L−1 glycine + 5.0 g L−1 inositol + 0.003 g L−1 calcium pantothenate + 0.03 g L−1 thiamine hydrolysate + 40 g L−1 sucrose + 100/50 mg L−1 NAA | Callus induction | Button et al. [11] |
Zygotic embryos | SH salts + 0.3 mg L−1 NAA | Callus induction | Bornman [39] | ||
Leaf | MS salts + 9.0/22.5/45.0 µM 2,4-D + 2.2/4.4 µM BAP + 4.6 µM KIN + 5.4 µM NAA | Embryogenic culture induction | Misra et al. [38] | ||
Gnetales | Gnetum ula | Megagametophyte + immature zygotic embryos | MS salts + 20 g L−1 sucrose + 5 mg L−1 BAP MS/2 salts (PGR-free) | Embryogenic culture induction Immature somatic embryo formation | Augustine and D’Souza [46] |
Ephedrales | Ephedra foliata | Zygotic embryos | MS salts + 2 µM 2,4-D + 10 µM KIN MS salts PGR-free | Embryogenic culture induction and somatic embryo maturation Somatic plantlet formation | Dhiman et al. [43] |
Ephedra gerardiana | Internodal segments | MS salts + 1.0 µM TDZ MS salts PGR-free | Embryogenic culture induction and somatic embryo maturation Somatic plantlet formation | Sharma et al. [44] | |
Cuppressales | Cupressus sempervirens | Zygotic embryos | DCR salts + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.2 g L−1 myo-inositol + 0.1 g L−1 L-glutamine + sucrose (30 g/L) + 10 µM 2,4-D DCR salts + 1 µM ABA + 0.02% AC | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo formation | Lambardi et al. [113] |
Zygotic embryos | MS salts + 15 g L−1 fructose + 15 g L−1 glucose + 4 g L−1 AC + 10 mL l−1 coconut water MS + 15 g L−1 fructose + 15 g L−1 glucose + 4 g L−1 AC + 1 g L−1 BSA | Embryogenic culture induction Proembryo formation | Sallandrouze et al. [114] | ||
Megagametophyte + immature zygotic embryos | DCR salts + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.2 g L−1 myo-inositol + 0.1 g L−1 L-glutamine + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 10 µM 2,4-D DCR salts + 75 g L−1 PEG 4000 | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Barberini et al. [104] | ||
Megagametophyte + immature zygotic embryos | DCR salts + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.2 g L−1 myo-inositol + 0.1 g L−1 L-glutamine + sucrose (30 g/L) + 10 µM 2,4-D DCR salts + 75 g L−1 PEG 4000 | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Lambardi et al. [115] | ||
Cryptomeria japonica | Zygotic embryos | CDm salts + 0.8 g L−1 ammonium nitrate + 1 μM 2,4-D + 6.0 g L−1 L-glutamine CDm salts + ABA (0, 0.1, 1, and 10 µM) + BAP (0.1, 1, and 10 µM) | Embryogenic culture induction Proembryo development | Ogita et al. [116] | |
Zygotic embryos | SM1 salts + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 10 μM 2,4-D + 3 μM BAP + 0.5 g L−1 L-glutamine LPM salts + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 10 μM 2,4-D + 3 μM BAP + 0.5 g L−1 L-glutamine SM3 salts + PEG 400 + ABA LP salts + 0.2 g L−1 sucrose + 5 g L−1 AC | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development Somatic plantlet formation | Maruyama et al. [83] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + 0.01% myo-inositol + 0.15% L-glutamine + 3.2 μM 2,4-D + 1.8 μM BAP + 3% sucrose + 0.4% gellan gum EMM salts + 0.2% AC + 0.3% gellan gum EMM salts + 0.2% AC + 3/5-strength EMM vitamins + 400 mg L−1 L-glutamine + 260 mg L−1 arginine + 20 mg L−1 proline | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development Somatic plantlet formation | Igasaki et al. [84] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + 0.01% myo-inositol + 0.15% L-glutamine + 3% sucrose + 3.2 μM 2,4-D + 1.8 μM BAP + 32 nM PSK EMM salts + 5% PEG 4000 + 3% maltose + 100 μM ABA + 32 nM PSK + 0.2% AC + 0.3% gellan gum SGM salts + 0.2% AC + 10 μM GA3 | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development Somatic plantlet formation | Igasaki et al. [85] | ||
Zygotic embryos | mCD salts + 3% sucrose + 4.1 mM L-glutamine + 1 µM 2,4-D mCD salts + 3% sucrose + 16.4 mM L-glutamine +100 µM ABA + 6% maltose | PEM induction PEM maturation | Nakagawa et al. [117] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MSG salts + 0.01% myo-inositol + 0.15% glutamine + 3.2 µM 2,4-D + 1.8 µM BAP + 3% sucrose + 0.4% gellan gum | Embryogenic culture induction and somatic embryo development | Igasaki et al. [118] | ||
Megagametophyte | EM salts + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 10 μM 2,4-D + 5 μM BAP + 0.5 g L−1 casein + 0.5 g L−1 L-glutamine EM salts + 30 g L−1 maltose + 2 g L−1 AC + 100 μM ABA + amino acids + 150 g L−1 PEG + 3.3 g L−1 gellan gum EM salts + 20 g L−1 sucrose + 1.5 g L−1 L-glutamine + 10 g L−1 agar | Embryogenic culture induction Cotyledonary embryo development Somatic plantlet formation | Maruyama et al. [119] | ||
Zygotic embryos | MS salts + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 3 μM 2,4-D + 1 μM BAP MS salts + 30 g L−1 maltose + 175 g L−1 PEG 6000 + 2 g L−1 AC + 100 μM ABA | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Izuno et al. [88] | ||
Seed | EM salts + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 10 μM 2,4-D + 5 μM BAP + 0.5 g L−1 casein + 0.5 g L−1 L-glutamine + 3 g L−1 gelrite EM salts + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 3 mΜ 2,4-D + 1 μM BAP + 1.5 g L−1 L-glutamine + 3 g L−1 −1 gelrite EM salts + 175 g L−1 PEG + 100 µM ABA + 2 g L−1 L-glutamine + 1 g L−1 asparagine + 0.5 g L−1 arginine + 3 g L−1 gelrite | Embryogenic culture induction Embryogenic culture proliferation Somatic embryo maturation | Maruyama et al. [79] | ||
Chamaecyparis pisifera | Immature seed | MS salts + 0.5 g L−1 L-glutamine + 2,4-D + BAP MS salts + 100 μM ABA + 2 g L−1 AC + 150 g L−1 PEG 4000 LP salts + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 5 g L−1 AC + 12.5 g L−1 Wako agar | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo maturation Somatic plantlet formation | Maruyama et al. [120] | |
Immature seed | MS salts + 0.5 g L−1 L-glutamine + 2,4-D + BAP MS salts + 100 μM ABA + 2 g L−1 AC + 150 g L−1 PEG 4000 LP salts + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 5 g L−1 AC + 12.5 g L−1 Wako agar | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo maturation Somatic plantlet formation | Maruyama et al. [121] | ||
Immature seed | MS/2 salts + 10 μM 2,4-D + 5 μM BAP + 10 g L−1 sucrose MS/2 salts + 1–10 μM 2,4-D + 0.3 μM BAP + 0.5 g L−1 L-glutamine + 30 g L−1 sucrose EM salts + 50 g L−1 maltose + 100 μM ABA + 2 g L−1 AC + 150 g L−1 PEG 4000 + amino acids EM/2 salts + 2 g L−1 AC + 10 g L−1 agar | Embryogenic culture induction Embryogenic culture proliferation Somatic embryo maturation Somatic plantlet formation | Hosoi and Maruyama [122] | ||
Chamaecyparis obtusa | Zygotic embryos | MS salts + 10 μM 2,4-D + 30 g L−1 sucrose MS salts + vitamins + 100 μM ABA + 150 g L−1 PEG 4000 + 30 g L−1 maltose MS salts + 2 g L−1 AC + 20 g L−1 sucrose + 5 g L−1 gelrite | Embryogenic culture induction Cotyledonary embryo development Somatic plantlet formation | Konogaya et al. [123] | |
Zygotic embryos | EM salts + 0.40 g L−1 KCl + 0.5 g L−1 casein + 1 g L−1 L-glutamine + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 10 µM 2,4-D + 5 µM BAP EM salts + 50 g L−1 maltose + 100 g L−1 PEG 4000 + 2 g L−1 AC + 100 µM ABA + EMM amino acids | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic plantlet formation | Maruyama et al. (2005) [124] | ||
Chamaecyparis thyoides | Zygotic embryos | EM salts + 0/4.5/9 µM 2,4-D + 0/2.2/4.4 µM BAP + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 0.5 g L−1 myo-inositol + 1 g L−1 L-glutamine EM salts + 50 g L−1 maltose + 100 gL−1 PEG 4000 + 0/10/50/100 µM ABA + 0/2 g L−1 AC EM salts + 10 g L−1 sucrose + 2 g L−1 AC | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development Somatic plantlet formation | Ahn et al. [102] | |
Cunninghamia lanceolata | Zygotic embryos | DCR salts + g L−1 sucrose + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 0.4 g L−1 L-glutamine + 5 g L−1 Phytagel + 1 g L−1 AC + 0.5 mg L−1 2,4-D + 0.5 mg L−1 KIN DCR salts + 50 μM ABA + 100 g L−1 PEG 6000 | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Hu et al. [103] | |
Zygotic embryos | DCR salts + 1–2 mg L−1 2,4-D + 0.5 mg L−1 KIN + 0.5 mg L−1 BAP + 1 mg L−1 vitamin C + 0.45 g L−1 L-glutamine + 20 g L−1 maltose + 2.5 g L−1 AC + 2.3 g L−1 gelrite DCR salts + 2–8 mg L−1 ABA + 1.5 mg L−1 GA + 0.2 g L−1 proline + 0.45 g L−1 L-glutamine + 1 mg L−1 vitamin C + 0.5 g L−1 casein hydrolysate + 25 g L−1 maltose + 2 g L−1 AC + 0.2 g L−1 aspartic acid + 2.8 g L−1 gelrite + 100–200 g L−1 PEG | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Wang et al. [125] | ||
Zygotic embryos | DCR salts + 2.0–6.0 mg L−1 2,4-D + 0.5 mg L−1 BAP + 500 mg L−1 casein hydrolysate + 450 mg L−1 L-glutamine + 100 mg L−1 myo-inositol + 20 g L−1 maltose + 2.1 g L−1 gellan gum DCR salts + 3 mg L−1 ABA + 1.0 mg L−1 GA3 + 500 mg L−1 casein hydrolysate + 120–200 g L−1 PEG 8000 + 30 g L−1 maltose | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Zhou et al. [126] | ||
Torreya taxifolia | Zygotic embryos | 2207 salts + 0.25% AC + 15 g L−1 maltose + 1 g L−1 myo-inositol + 110 mg L−1 + 2,4-D + 45 mg L−1 BAP + 43 mg L−1 KIN + 0.048 mg L−1 brassinolide + 1 mg L−1 ABA + 5 mg L−1 biotin + 50 mg L−1 folic acid + 250 mg L−1 MES + 60.7 mg L−1 pyruvic acid + 450 mg L−1 L-glutamine 2207 salts + 1% AC + 15 g L−1 maltose + 200 mg L−1 ABA + 5 mg L−1 biotin + 0.1000 μM brassinolide + 50 mg L−1 folic acid + 250 mg L−1 MES + 60.7 mg L−1 pyruvic acid + 0.048 mg L−1 brassinolide + 450 mg L−1 L-glutamine | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Ma et al. [107] | |
Sequoia sempervirens | Needles | SH salts + 0/0.05/0.1 g L−1 BAP + 0/0.02/0.05 g L−1 KT + 0.02/0.05/0.1 g L−1 IBA + 0.05% casein hydrolysate SH salts + 0.05 g L−1 IBA + 0.01 g L−1 NAA + 0.1% AC + 1.5% sucrose + 0.05% casein hydrolysate | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic embryo development | Liu et al. [105] | |
Juniperus communis | Zygotic embryos | LP salts + 15 mM ammonium nitrate + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 9 µM 2,4-D + 4.4 µM BAP + 0.044 g L−1 L-glutamine LP salts + 15 mM ammonium nitrate + 30 g L−1 sucrose + 32 mg L−1 ABA + 0.044 g L−1 L-glutamine | Embryogenic culture induction Proembryo development | Belaineh et al. [96] | |
Megagametophytes | LP salts (PGR-free) DCR salts + 2.02 mM potassium nitrate + 1.16 mM calcium chloride + 60 µM ABA + 20 or 100 µM GA4/7 | Embryogenic culture induction Early somatic embryo development | Helmerson et al. [93] | ||
Juniperus procera | Zygotic embryos | LP salts + 15 mM ammonium nitrate + 3.0 g L−1 sucrose + 9.0 µM 2,4-D + 4.4 µM BAP + 0.044 g L−1 L-glutamine + 1.6 g L−1/3.2 g L−1/6.4 g L−1/12.8 g L−1/25.6 g L−1 ABA + 7.5% PEG 4000 | Non-embryogenic callus | Belaineh et al. [96] | |
Juniperus excelsa | Shoots | MS salts + ammonium nitrate/potassium nitrate + L-glutamine | Callus induction | Shanjani et al. [95] | |
Thuja koraiensis | Zygotic embryos | EM salts + SH + Litvay + 2.2 µM BAP + 4.5 µM 2,4-D + 1 g L−1 L-glutamine + 0.5 g L−1 myo-inositol + 1 g L−1 AC + 10 g L−1 sucrose IM salts + 1% sucrose | Embryogenic culture induction Somatic plantlet formation | Ahn et al. [106] | |
Taxus cuspidata | Zygotic embryos | SPE salts + 0.001 g L−1 KIN + 0.002 g L−1 NAA | Embryogenic culture induction | Ewald et al. [99] | |
Taxus brevifolia | Zygotic embryos | SPE salts + 0.001 g L−1 KIN + 0.002 g L−1 NAA | Embryogenic culture induction | Ewald et al. [99] | |
Taxus baccata | Zygotic embryos | SPE salts + 0.001 g L−1 KIN + 0.002 g L−1 NAA | Embryogenic culture induction | Ewald et al. [99] | |
Taxus wallichiana | Zygotic embryos | B5 salts + SH vitamins + 3% sucrose + 0.01 g L−1 NAA + 0.005 g L−1 BAP WPM salts + SH vitamins + 3% sucrose + 0.02 g L−1 NAA + 0.05 g L−1 BAP WPM salts + 0.01 g L−1 ABA + 1.0% AC | Embryogenic culture induction Early precotyledonary somatic embryo development Somatic plantlet formation | Datta and Jha [101] |
8. Conclusions and Future Directions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Fraga, H.P.d.F.; Moraes, P.E.C.; Vieira, L.d.N.; Guerra, M.P. Somatic Embryogenesis in Conifers: One Clade to Rule Them All? Plants 2023, 12, 2648. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12142648
Fraga HPdF, Moraes PEC, Vieira LdN, Guerra MP. Somatic Embryogenesis in Conifers: One Clade to Rule Them All? Plants. 2023; 12(14):2648. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12142648
Chicago/Turabian StyleFraga, Hugo Pacheco de Freitas, Paula Eduarda Cardoso Moraes, Leila do Nascimento Vieira, and Miguel Pedro Guerra. 2023. "Somatic Embryogenesis in Conifers: One Clade to Rule Them All?" Plants 12, no. 14: 2648. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12142648