Search Results (19)

Cacao genotypes propagation through plant tissue culture represents a strategic approach for establishing a core collection of elite plants to be used as a donor material source, necessary for increasing new planting areas of cacao. This study aimed to evaluate somatic embryo regeneration in ten native fine-aroma cacao genotypes (INDES-06, INDES-11, INDES-14, INDES-32, INDES-52, INDES-53, INDES-63, INDES-64, INDES-66, INDES-70) from the INDES-CES germplasm collection, under in vitro conditions using culture medium supplemented with different concentrations of Thidiazuron (0, 10, and 20 nM). Our results showed an average of 20 and 100% of callogenesis in all genotypes evaluated, but the callus development did not appear after early stages of its induction; however, primary somatic embryos were observed after 42 days after TDZ treatment in the INDES-52, INDES-53, INDES-64, INDES-66, INDES-70 genotypes. The INDES-52 genotype was more responsive to under 20 nM of TDZ, generating an average of 17 embryos per explant. This study contributes to the adaptation and establishment of a protocol for somatic embryo regeneration of fine-flavor cacao genotypes. Full article

The cacao trade and export industry has been impacted by cadmium (Cd²⁺) accumulation in soils, as the metal is absorbed by plants and transferred to the tissues. Consequently, cacao beans and their derivatives can become contaminated, sometimes exceeding permissible limits. In this study, the capacity of native Trichoderma strains to reduce Cd accumulation in cacao was evaluated. Twelve Trichoderma strains were analyzed to assess their cadmium removal capacity through in vitro assays and their ability to reduce Cd concentration in cacao plants under controlled in vivo conditions. The in vitro results showed that several Trichoderma strains could remove cadmium and accumulate it in their biomass. However, this process is complex as it depends on metal concentration and environmental conditions. Notably, T. afroharzianum UCF18-M1 and CP24-6 exhibited high removal efficiencies at 100 ppm (61.79 ± 2.98% and 57.93 ± 4.14%, respectively). In contrast, the in vivo assays revealed that, contrary to expectations, some strains—including those with the highest removal efficiency—stimulated Cd uptake in plants, even at toxic levels, such as T. orientale BLPF1-C1. However, T. longibrachiatum UCF17-M4 and Trichoderma sp. UCPF2-C1 significantly reduced Cd accumulation in the stem. These findings highlight the potential of these strains to mitigate Cd contamination in cacao. Full article

Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is considered a functional food due to its composition, which is rich in bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, theobromine, dietary fiber, and essential minerals. Several studies have shown that flavonoids have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, helping to reduce oxidative stress and protecting against cardiovascular diseases. In addition, their ability to stimulate nitric oxide production improves blood circulation and lowers blood pressure. These benefits, coupled with its ability to improve mood and cognitive function, position cocoa as a key ingredient in the development of functional foods aimed at improving quality of life and preventing chronic diseases. This research aims to create a product that incorporates cocoa and essential oils extracted from aromatic plants native to the department of Cauca. This represents a significant step toward the sustainable use of these ingredients in the region, promoting consumer welfare and health while strengthening sustainable practices, fostering innovation, and boosting economic and social development in the department. The research is developed in five phases: determination of the study area, characterization of the cocoa production chain in the department of Cauca, selection of essential oils, application of an experimental mixture design and physicochemical and microbiological analyses of the final product. From the experimental design of the mixture, it was determined that the most appropriate formulation of the bar is 60% dark chocolate (70% cocoa), 29% sweet chocolate, 10% pure strawberry and 1% fennel essential oil (Foeniculum vulgare), reaching an average sensory acceptability of 3.23 on a five-point hedonic scale. The qualitative properties (organoleptic, chemical and microbial) of the selected formulations are acceptable for human consumption and provide a high energy content of 506.25 kcal/100 g for chocolate bars filled with strawberry puree and fennel essential oil. Full article

Human-caused habitat conversion, degradation, and climate change threaten global biodiversity, particularly in tropical forests where vascular epiphytes—non-parasitic plants growing on other plants—may be especially vulnerable. Epiphytes play vital ecological roles, in nutrient cycling and by providing habitat, but are disproportionately affected by land-use changes due to their reliance on host trees and specific microclimatic conditions. While tree species in secondary forests recover relatively quickly, epiphyte recolonization is slower, especially in humid montane regions, where species richness may decline by up to 96% compared to primary or old-growth forests. A review of nearly 300 pertinent studies has revealed a geographic bias toward the Neotropics, with limited research from tropical Asia, Africa, and temperate regions. The studies can be grouped into four main areas: 1. trade, use and conservation, 2. ecological effects of climate and land-use change, 3. diversity in human-modified habitats, and 4. responses to disturbance. In agricultural and timber plantations, particularly those using exotic species like pine and eucalyptus, epiphyte diversity is significantly reduced. In contrast, most native tree species and shade-grown agroforestry systems support higher species richness. Traditional polycultures with dense canopy cover maintain up to 88% of epiphyte diversity, while intensive management practices, such as epiphyte removal in coffee and cacao plantations, cause substantial biodiversity losses. Conservation strategies should prioritize preserving old-growth forests, maintaining forest fragments, and minimizing intensive land management. Active restoration, including the translocation of fallen epiphytes and planting vegetation nuclei, is more effective than passive approaches. Future research should include long-term monitoring to understand epiphyte dynamics and assess the broader impacts of epiphyte loss on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Full article

The physicochemical and biochemical changes during the fermentation of four clones and two native varieties of Theobroma cacao L. were studied. Fermentation was performed in traditional wood cubes. During fermentation, the cotyledon pH decreased, and the temperature increased to more than 10 °C above the ambient temperature (47 °C). The fermentation index (FI) increased in the clones C1, C4, C8, C9, and Guayaquil (G) to close to one at 120 h of fermentation. For the FI of the cocoa Criollo (Cr), a value of 2.5 was proposed according to the spectrophotometric scan performance. The total polyphenol content increased in all the samples from 21 (C8) to 70 (Cr) % in a comparison of the TPC at T0 and T120, respectively. The total flavonoid content increased from 16 (C8) to 51% in Guayaquil (G) during the fermentation period. In the case of the methylxanthines, such as theobromine and caffeine, both quantities decreased. The theobromine content decreased in all the samples from 6 (G) to 31% (C8). The caffeine content decreased in all the samples from 3% in Cr to 25% in C1 and G after fermentation. The antioxidant capability did not change after 120 h of fermentation, and the amount of methylxanthines did not affect the antioxidant potential of the fermented cocoa. The FTIR scan of the fat-free cocoa showed significant differences between the unfermented and fermented beans, and several peaks assigned to carbohydrates and proteins decreased. Full article

Fine-aroma cocoa (Theobroma cacao) is one of Ecuador’s most iconic export products and comprises 63% of world production. Nevertheless, few advances have been made to improve fermentation processes that might benefit the development of chocolate’s organoleptic characteristics. The study of starter cultures, which seek to improve organoleptic properties or decrease fermentation time, has been investigated in other countries. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of a native microbial cocktail based on two yeasts (Torulaspora delbrueckii and Hanseniaspora uvarum), a lactic acid bacterium (LAB) (Limosilactobacillus plantarum), and an acetic acid bacterium (AAB) (Acetobacter ghanensis) inoculated at the beginning of the fermentative process while tracking physical and biochemical variables, microbial population dynamics, and bean fermentation time. The starter culture caused changes in sugar and acid content and increased polyphenols, which in turn generated temperature and pH changes in the dough. The dynamics of yeast, AAB, and mesophilic microorganisms remain higher than the controls throughout the process. A decrease in filamentous fungi that affect the flavor and quality of beans was observed due to the production of acetic acid or secondary metabolites from yeasts and LAB, and resulted in 24% greater fermentation than spontaneous fermentation in only 96 h. Full article

In the south of Bahia state, a large part of the native Atlantic Forest areas has been modified for the cultivation of cocoa (Theobroma cacao). These crops are cultivated under the shade of the canopy of native trees, a system locally known as the “cabruca” agroforestry system. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship of Odonata assemblages (adults and larvae) in cocoa farming areas and to identify the relationships of these species with local and spatial environmental variables of the monitored sites. Altogether, adult and larvae were sampled at 22 sites. Physical and physicochemical water variables were recorded for each site. A total of 1336 dragonflies were collected, of which 20 were Zygoptera species and 30 were adult Anisoptera representatives. The different life stages were related to environmental variables such as conductivity, watercourse channel width, and dissolved oxygen. The space predictors were also associated with the assemblages, mainly for adults. The present study identified that cabruca areas maintain a great diversity of dragonflies, including species that are considered to be forest specialists and more sensitive to landscape changes. The characteristics of this cropping system are considered to be favorable for the conservation of the biodiversity of the Atlantic Forest. Full article

Cacao plant cadmium accumulation has become a major concern, especially for small Amazonian producers. A sustainable alternative to address its toxicity is the use of cadmium removal bacteria. In this regard, 138 rhizosphere isolates from cacao were examined. Supported by their phenotypic characterization and in vitro cadmium tolerance, three hypertolerant bacteria were selected and identified as members of the Bacillus (S1C2, R1C2) and Pseudomonas (V3C3) genera. They were able to grow normally and reduce the cadmium content under in vitro conditions. However, only S1C2 and R1C2 evidenced to employ intracellular Cd²⁺ accumulation, suggesting the variability of bacterial detoxification mechanisms. Their bioremediation capacity for Theobroma cacao CCN51 was also analyzed. Surprisingly, we found high detectable levels of Cd²⁺ in the non-cadmium supplemented control, suggesting an extra source of cadmium in the pot. Moreover, despite their cadmium reduction performance under in vitro conditions, they exerted highly variable outcomes on stem cadmium accumulation. While S1C2 and R1C2 showed a considerable reduction of Cd content in cacao stems, the strain V3C3 did not show any effect on Cd content. This highlights the complexity of the plant–bacteria interactions and the importance of the in vivo test for the selection of promising PGPR bacteria. Overall, our results suggest the cadmium alleviation potential and promising prospects of native Bacillus strains associated with Amazonian cacao. Full article

Frosty pod rot, caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri, is one of the most important diseases of cacao in Peru. Sustainable alternatives to control it include timely cultural practices such as pruning, and the application of biological control agents such as Trichoderma spp. We isolated 234 Trichoderma strains native to the department of Amazonas in Northern Peru from soil samples in cacao farms. These strains belong to at least eighteen species within four phylogenetic clades in the genus (Harzianum, Longibrachiatum, Hamatum, and Brevicompactum clades). We aimed to assess the in vitro biocontrol potential of these strains against M. roreri. We evaluated their mycoparasitism, antibiosis, and potential antagonism to select candidate strains for efficient biocontrol of M. roreri. We found evidence (Kruskal–Wallis test, p < 0.005) that strains belonging to the Harzianum clade tend to have higher mycoparasitism, antibiosis, and potential antagonism levels than strains in the Longibrachiatum and Hamatum clades. Additionally, this study constitutes the first report for antagonistic behavior against M. roreri for T. parareesei, T. lentiforme, T. orientale, T. asperelloides, T. inhamatum, T. zelobreve, T. afarasin, T. ghanense, T. rifaii, and T. breve. These results will be foundational for further M. roreri biocontrol studies. Full article

Tropical forests such as the Atlantic Forest are under constant threats from the impact of human activities, mostly being caused by the loss of native forest areas for other land uses. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of changes in land use for pasture and cacao cultivation on the richness and composition of Odonata assemblages in comparison to native forest areas. We also evaluated the species as possible indicators of these different land uses. In total, 64 streams were sampled in southern Bahia, Brazil. A total of 84 species were recorded. The results indicated that changes in land use modify the richness and composition of Odonata assemblages. Regarding composition, our results indicated a difference among the assemblages in the three land use areas and that the native areas maintain more stable assemblages. According to the indicator species analysis, 13 species were recorded as possible bioindicators for different land uses. Changes in aquatic ecosystems and their surroundings caused by different land uses a select group of different species groups, modifying Odonata diversity among these areas. Notably, land uses that maintain a certain integrity of the environment, as in the case of cacao cultivation, are the best alternatives for conserving Odonata biodiversity in comparison with pasture. Full article

Twelve cadmium native bacteria previously isolated in soils of cocoa farms located in the western Colombian Andes (Santander), and tolerant to 2500 µM CdCl₂ (120 mg Cd/L), were chosen in order to test their tolerance and Cd immobilization using liquid culture medium (Nutritive broth) at different concentrations of heavy metals. Furthermore, in the greenhouse experiments, the strains Exiguobacterium sp. (11-4A), Klebsiella variicola sp. (18-4B), and Enterobacter sp. (29-4B) were applied in combined treatments using CCN51 cacao genotype seeds grown in soil with different concentrations of Cd. All bacterial strains’ cell morphologies were deformed in TEM pictures, which also identified six strain interactions with biosorption and four strain capacities for bioaccumulation; FT-IR suggested that the amide, carbonyl, hydroxyl, ethyl, and phosphate groups on the bacteria biomass were the main Cd binding sites. In the pot experiments, the concentration of Cd was distributed throughout the cacao plant, but certain degrees of immobilization of Cd can occur in soil to prevent an increase in this level in roots with the presence of Klebsiella sp. Full article

After changes in tillage on croplands, it is necessary to assess the effects on soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics in order to identify if soil is a sink or emitter of carbon to the atmosphere. This study was conducted in two plots of rice cultivation, where tillage and water management changes occurred. A third plot of native forest with Cacao trees was used as reference soil (agroforestry). For SOC balance estimation, measurement of organic carbon (OC) inputs was determined from necromass, roots, microbial biomass, and urea applications. CO₂ and CH₄ emissions were also measured. Results showed that the change in the use of irrigation and tillage in rice cultivation did not cause significant differences in OC inputs to soil or in outputs due to carbon emissions. Further-more, it was found that both irrigation and tillage management systems in rice cultivation com-pared with agroforestry were management systems with a negative difference between OC inputs and outputs due to CO₂ emissions associated with intense stimulation of crop root respiration and microbial activity. The comparison of SOC dynamics between the agroforestry system and rice cultivation systems showed that an agroforestry system is a carbon sink with a positive OC dynamic. Full article

Cacao is an understory plant cultivated in full-sun monocultures, multistrata agroforestry systems, where cacao trees are planted together with fruit, timber, firewood, and leguminous trees, or within thinned native forests. In agroforestry systems of cultivation, cacao is subjected to excess shade due to high density, excess growth, and the unmanaged pruning of shade trees. Cacao is tolerant to shade, and the maximum photosynthetic rate occurs at an irradiance of around 400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹. However, excess shade further reduces the irradiance, which is detrimental to photosynthesis and growth functions. Intra-specific variation is known to exist in cacao for the required saturation irradiance. A greenhouse study was implemented with 58 cacao genotypes selected from four geographically diverse groups: (i) wild cacao from river basins of the Peruvian Amazon (PWC); (ii) Peruvian farmers’ collection (PFC); (iii) Brazilian cacao collection (BCC); and (iv) national and international cacao collections (NIC). All of the cacao genotypes were subjected to 50% and 80% shade where photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was 1000 and 400 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively. Intra-specific variations were observed for growth, physiological and nutritional traits, and tolerance to shade. Cacao genotypes tolerant to shade were: UNG-77 and UGU-130 from PWC; ICT-2173, ICT-2142, ICT-2172, ICT-1506, ICT-1087, and ICT-2171 from PFC; PH-21, CA-14, PH-990, and PH-144 from BCC; and ICS-1, ICS-39, UF-613, and POUND-12 from NIC. Genotypes that tolerate excess shade may be useful plant types for maintaining productivity and sustainability in agroforestry systems of cacao management. Full article

The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao L.) is native to the Amazon basin and widely cultivated in the tropics to produce seeds, the valuable raw material for the chocolate industry. Conservation of cacao genetic resources and their availability for breeding and production programs are vital for securing cacao supply. However, relatively little is still known about the phylogeographic structure of natural cacao populations. We studied the geographic distribution of cpDNA variation in different populations representing natural cacao stands, cacao farms in Ecuador, and breeding populations. We used six earlier published cacao chloroplast microsatellite markers to genotype 233 cacao samples. In total, 23 chloroplast haplotypes were identified. The highest variation of haplotypes was observed in western Amazonia including geographically restricted haplotypes. Two observed haplotypes were widespread across the Amazon basin suggesting long distance seed dispersal from west to east in Amazonia. Most cacao genetic groups identified earlier using nuclear SSRs are associated with specific chloroplast haplotypes. A single haplotype was common in selections representing cacao plantations in west Ecuador and reference Trinitario accessions. Our results can be used to determine the chloroplast diversity of accessions and in combination with phenotypic assessments can help to select geographically distinctive varieties for cacao breeding programs. Full article

Guiana is a little-known and endemic variety of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.), native to French Guiana. No data were available regarding its chemical composition and biological properties; therefore, a study was necessary, using Forastero as a reference. To exemplify biological activities of the cacao species, cocoa extracts were evaluated by antioxidant (DPPH, FRAP, ORAC) and anti-inflammatory assays. Our results showed that raw Guiana presented equivalent DPPH and FRAP activities, but a 1.3-fold higher antioxidant activity (1097 ± 111.8 μM ET/g DM) than Forastero (838.5 ± 67.8 μM ET/g DM) in ORAC assay. Furthermore, the impact of fermentation (under four conditions: unfermented, two days, four days and six days of fermentation) on Guiana cocoa beans composition and health properties was also studied. Indeed, fermentation, a key step necessary to obtain the taste and color of chocolate, is generally known to alter bean composition and modulate its health benefits. At six days, the fermentation process led to a nearly 25% lower antioxidative capacity in various assays. Moreover, in inflammation-induced macrophage assays, Guiana and Forastero unfermented extracts induced a 112% stimulation in TNF-α production, and a 56.8% inhibition of IL-6 production. Fermentation altered the cocoa composition by diminishing bioactive compounds, which could be responsible for these biological activities. Indeed, after six days of fermentation, compounds decreased from 614.1 ± 39.3 to 332.3 ± 29 mg/100 g DM for epicatechin, from 254.1 ± 14.8 to 129.5 ± 20.7 mg/100 g DM for procyanidin B2 and from 178.4 ± 23.5 to 81.7 ± 2.9 mg/100 g DM for procyanidin C1. The similar composition and the equivalent or higher antioxidant activity of Guiana leads us to propose it as an alternative to Forastero. Full article