Sign in to use this feature.

Years

Between: -

Subjects

remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline
remove_circle_outline

Journals

Article Types

Countries / Regions

Search Results (31)

Search Parameters:
Keywords = drying of masonry wall

Order results
Result details
Results per page
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
22 pages, 3556 KB  
Article
Structural Performance of Multi-Wythe Stone Masonry Buildings Under Seismic Loading: UNESCO Trulli Case Study
by Armando La Scala, Michele Vitti and Dora Foti
Buildings 2025, 15(17), 3195; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15173195 - 4 Sep 2025
Viewed by 622
Abstract
This study provides an in-depth structural analysis of UNESCO World Heritage Apulian trulli, considering the three-layer dry-stone structure of their characteristic conical roofs. An integrated approach involving laser scanning, ground-penetrating radar, endoscopic investigation, and laboratory materials testing is used to identify and characterize [...] Read more.
This study provides an in-depth structural analysis of UNESCO World Heritage Apulian trulli, considering the three-layer dry-stone structure of their characteristic conical roofs. An integrated approach involving laser scanning, ground-penetrating radar, endoscopic investigation, and laboratory materials testing is used to identify and characterize the multi-wythe masonry system. A detailed finite element model is created in ANSYS to analyze seismic performance on Italian building codes. The model is validated through ambient vibration testing using accelerometric measurements. The diagnostic survey identified a three-layer system including exterior stone wythe, interior wythe, and rubble core, with compressive strength of stone averaging 2.5 MPa and mortar strength of 0.8 MPa. The seismic assessment will allow the examination of displacement patterns and stress distribution under design load conditions (ag = 0.15 g). The structural analysis demonstrates adequate performance under design loading conditions, with maximum stress levels remaining within acceptable limits for historic masonry construction. The experimental validation confirmed the finite element model predictions, with good correlation between numerical and experimental frequencies. The improvement of the overall seismic performance with the multi-wythe configuration and the role of wall thickness and geometric proportions will be taken into account. The methodology aims to provide technical evidence supporting the continued use of vernacular buildings while contributing to scientifically informed conservation practices throughout the region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
Show Figures

Figure 1

15 pages, 2330 KB  
Article
The Influence of Moisture Content and Workmanship Accuracy on the Thermal Properties of a Single-Layer Wall Made of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC)
by Maria Wesołowska and Daniel Liczkowski
Materials 2025, 18(17), 3967; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18173967 - 25 Aug 2025
Viewed by 756
Abstract
The use of single-layer aerated concrete walls in residential construction has a tradition of over 60 years. Its main advantage is thermal insulation. It is the most advantageous among construction materials used for the construction of external walls. The possibility of modifying the [...] Read more.
The use of single-layer aerated concrete walls in residential construction has a tradition of over 60 years. Its main advantage is thermal insulation. It is the most advantageous among construction materials used for the construction of external walls. The possibility of modifying the dimensions of the blocks leads to meeting subsequent restrictive values of the heat transfer coefficient U. The high dimensional accuracy of the blocks allows the use of dry vertical joints and thin joints with a thickness of 1–3 mm, the thermal influence of which is omitted. However, the thermal uniformity of such a wall is strictly dependent on the quality of workmanship. The main objective of the analysis is to assess the impact of moisture on the Uwall of walls as a function of vertical joint spacing and horizontal joint thickness. It should be said that the effect of humidity and manufacturing accuracy on the thermal properties of aerated concrete walls has not been sufficiently studied. Further study of these patterns is necessary. Particular attention should be paid to the thin-bed mortar, which depends on the manufacturing accuracy. The separation of AAC masonry elements that occurs during bricklaying significantly affects the thermal insulation of walls. This issue has not yet been analysed. The scientific objective of this article is to develop a procedure for determining the thermal properties of a small, irregular air space created as a result of the separation of masonry elements and the impact of this separation on the thermal insulation of the wall. Based on the analysis of the thermal conductivity of voids and masonry elements, it was determined that this impact is visible at low AAC densities. A detailed analysis taking into account both these joints and horizontal joints, as well as different moisture levels, made it possible to determine the permissible separation of AAC blocks, at which the high thermal insulation requirements applicable in most European countries are met. The analysis showed that it is possible to meet the thermal protection requirements for 42 cm wide blocks intended for single-layer walls with a maximum vertical contact width of 3 mm and a joint thickness of up to 2 mm. AAC moisture content plays a major role in thermal insulation. Insulation requirements can be met for AAC in an air-dry state, as specified by ISO 10456. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 8810 KB  
Article
Natural Fiber TRM for Integrated Upgrading/Retrofitting
by Arnas Majumder, Monica Valdes, Andrea Frattolillo, Enzo Martinelli and Flavio Stochino
Buildings 2025, 15(16), 2852; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15162852 - 12 Aug 2025
Viewed by 748
Abstract
Sustainability in the construction and building sector with the use of greener and more eco-friendly building materials can minimize carbon footprint, which is one of the prime goals of the twenty-first century. The use of natural fibers in ancient and traditional buildings and [...] Read more.
Sustainability in the construction and building sector with the use of greener and more eco-friendly building materials can minimize carbon footprint, which is one of the prime goals of the twenty-first century. The use of natural fibers in ancient and traditional buildings and structures is not new, but in the last fifty years, only man-made fibers have predominantly occupied the market for structural retrofitting or upgrading. This research investigated the potential of utilizing natural fibers, particularly jute fiber products, to enhance masonry’s thermal and structural characteristics. The study meticulously investigated the utilization of materials such as jute net (with a mesh size of 2.5 cm × 1.25 cm), jute fiber diatons, and jute fiber composite mortar (with 1% jute fiber with respect to the dry mortar mass) in the context of masonry upgrading. The research evaluated the structural and thermal performance of these upgraded walls. Notably, the implementation of natural fiber textile-reinforced mortar (NFTRM) resulted in an astounding increase of over 500% in the load-bearing capacity of the walls, while simultaneously enhancing insulation by more than 36%. Furthermore, the study involved a meticulous analysis of crack patterns during in-plane cyclic testing utilizing the advanced Digital Image Correlation (DIC) tool. The upgraded/retrofitted wall exhibited a maximum crack width of approximately 7.84 mm, primarily along the diagonal region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Sustainable and Green Construction Materials)
Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 4313 KB  
Article
Enhancing the Thermal Insulation Properties of Clay Materials Using Coffee Grounds and Expanded Perlite Waste: A Sustainable Approach to Masonry Applications
by Ioannis Makrygiannis, Konstantinos Karalis and Ploutarchos Tzampoglou
Ceramics 2025, 8(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/ceramics8020030 - 24 Mar 2025
Viewed by 2010
Abstract
The development of energy-efficient and sustainable construction materials is essential for reducing environmental impact and enhancing building performance. This study investigates the incorporation of coffee grounds and expanded perlite waste—two underutilized industrial byproducts—into clay-based ceramics to improve thermal insulation while maintaining mechanical integrity. [...] Read more.
The development of energy-efficient and sustainable construction materials is essential for reducing environmental impact and enhancing building performance. This study investigates the incorporation of coffee grounds and expanded perlite waste—two underutilized industrial byproducts—into clay-based ceramics to improve thermal insulation while maintaining mechanical integrity. Unlike previous studies that explore these additives separately or in impractically high dosages, this research focuses on their combined effect at low, industrially viable ratios to ensure large-scale feasibility. Four clay mixtures were analyzed: a reference clay (TZ), clay with coffee grounds (TZCF), clay with expanded perlite waste (TZPW), and clay with both additives (TZCFPW). Laboratory testing and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were employed to assess the physical, mechanical, and thermal properties of these formulations. The results indicated that coffee grounds increased plasticity, while expanded perlite waste reduced it, requiring adjustments in processing parameters. Both additives contributed to lower shrinkage and drying sensitivity, improving dimensional stability during production. Although mechanical strength declined due to increased porosity—most notably in the TZPW mixture—the fired bending strength remained within acceptable limits for masonry applications. The most significant finding was the substantial improvement in thermal performance, with all the modified formulations exhibiting reduced thermal conductivity and enhanced insulation. The best performance was observed in the TZPW mixture, which demonstrated the lowest thermal conductivity, highest thermal resistance, and optimal U-values in masonry wall testing, confirming its potential for energy-efficient construction. CFD simulations further validated these enhancements, providing detailed insights into heat transfer mechanisms. These findings demonstrate the feasibility of repurposing industrial waste materials to create scalable, eco-friendly building products. Future research should refine formulation ratios to optimize the balance between strength and insulation, ensuring widespread adoption in sustainable construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ceramics in the Circular Economy for a Sustainable World)
Show Figures

Figure 1

28 pages, 7246 KB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of a Shear Wall Model in Interlocking Masonry with Dry Vertical and Horizontal Joints in Compressed Earth Blocks
by Basile Koudje and Edmond Adjovi
Buildings 2025, 15(4), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15040627 - 18 Feb 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1064
Abstract
This study investigates the mechanical behavior of masonry walls constructed using interlocking compressed earth blocks with dry vertical and horizontal joints. Numerical simulations were conducted to evaluate the performance of this innovative system compared to traditional masonry and to validate experimental findings from [...] Read more.
This study investigates the mechanical behavior of masonry walls constructed using interlocking compressed earth blocks with dry vertical and horizontal joints. Numerical simulations were conducted to evaluate the performance of this innovative system compared to traditional masonry and to validate experimental findings from previous studies, which identified an orthotropic and non-linear behavior in dry-joint interlocking masonry. The results show that while interlocking masonry exhibits performance comparable to traditional masonry under in-plane loads, it suffers an approximate 20% reduction in resistance under out-of-plane loads, primarily due to the absence of mortar in the horizontal joints. Despite this limitation, the system demonstrates significant economic benefits, achieving cost savings of up to 20% for masonry and 14% for reinforced concrete in conventional construction. These findings highlight the potential of interlocking masonry as a sustainable alternative, although its mechanical behavior under certain load conditions requires further investigation to optimize its structural applications. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 6828 KB  
Article
Comparison and Design of Dry-Stack Blocks with High Thermal Resistance for Exterior Walls of Sustainable Buildings in Cold Climates
by Marzieh Mohammadi, Tesfaalem Gereziher Atsbha and Yuxiang Chen
Sustainability 2025, 17(4), 1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041393 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 1839
Abstract
Given the increasing demand for higher construction productivity and better thermal resistance, adopting innovative building envelope systems is crucial. Dry-stack masonry blocks have emerged as a viable solution, due to their rapid assembly, mortar-free construction, and reduced dependence on skilled labor. However, there [...] Read more.
Given the increasing demand for higher construction productivity and better thermal resistance, adopting innovative building envelope systems is crucial. Dry-stack masonry blocks have emerged as a viable solution, due to their rapid assembly, mortar-free construction, and reduced dependence on skilled labor. However, there is a lack of scientific evaluation on the thermal performance of dry-stack blocks for cold climate zones and corresponding proper designs. This study addresses this gap by investigating market-available blocks and proposing two innovative block designs—a composite block and a simple block—highlighting their thermal performance and associated challenges. Using finite element modelling, the thermal resistance of these blocks was carefully assessed and compared. The results show that thermal bridging, induced by masonry ties penetrating the insulation, significantly impacts the thermal resistance of the wall made with simple blocks, resulting in an 11% decrease in the effective thermal resistance (R-value) as compared to the composite block walls. Furthermore, compared to a conventional masonry wall with the same insulation thickness, the composite-block wall exhibits a 24% higher R-value. The composite block outperforms existing market options in terms of thermal resistance, making it a superior choice for cold climate regions. Conversely, the simple block is preferred when sophisticated manufacturing facilities are unavailable. Overall, the composite block wall’s improved thermal resistance can make a meaningful contribution to lowering operational energy demand (i.e., operational carbon), contributing to the shift to a sustainable building stock. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 9128 KB  
Article
Determining Moisture Condition of External Thermal Insulation Composite System (ETICS) of an Existing Building
by Paweł Krause, Iwona Pokorska-Silva and Łukasz Kosobucki
Materials 2025, 18(3), 614; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18030614 - 29 Jan 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1173
Abstract
ETICS is a popular external wall insulation system, which is not without possible defects and damages. A frequent cause, direct or indirect, of damage to buildings is the impact of water (moisture). This article presents, among others, the results of tests of the [...] Read more.
ETICS is a popular external wall insulation system, which is not without possible defects and damages. A frequent cause, direct or indirect, of damage to buildings is the impact of water (moisture). This article presents, among others, the results of tests of the moisture content of ETICS layers, the water absorption and capillary absorption of the render by means of the Karsten tube method, numerical thermo-moisture simulations, and tests of interlayer adhesion, in sample residential buildings. Mass moisture content testing of the wall substrate showed acceptable moisture levels (1–4%m) within masonry walls made of silicate blocks, as well as locally elevated moisture levels (4–8%m) in the case of reinforced concrete walls. Moisture testing of the insulation samples showed a predominantly dry condition, and testing of the reinforcement layer showed an acceptable level of moisture. Severe moisture was found in the sample taken in the ground-floor zone at the interface between mineral wool and EPS-P insulation underneath the reinforced layer. Capillary water absorption tests helped classify silicone render as an impermeable and surface hydrophobic coating. Tests of the water absorption of the facade plaster showed that the value declared by the manufacturer (<0.5 kg/m2) was mostly met (not in the ground-floor zone). The simulation calculations gave information that there was no continuous increase in condensation during the assumed analysis time (the influence of interstitial condensation on the observed anomalies was excluded). The tests carried out indicated the occurrence of numerous errors in the implementation of insulation works affecting the moisture content and durability of external partitions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)
Show Figures

Figure 1

10 pages, 7666 KB  
Article
Experimental Study of Mechanical Behavior of Dry-Stone Structure Contact
by Irieix Costa, Joan Llorens, Miquel Àngel Chamorro, Joan Fontàs, Jordi Soler, Ester Gifra and Nathanaël Savalle
Buildings 2024, 14(12), 3744; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14123744 - 25 Nov 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1335
Abstract
Dry-stone structures are traditional constructions that are present everywhere around the world, with their stability working mostly by gravity. Contrarily to their in-plane behavior, their out-of-plane response is very brittle and is fully controlled by the geometry, as well as the contact properties, [...] Read more.
Dry-stone structures are traditional constructions that are present everywhere around the world, with their stability working mostly by gravity. Contrarily to their in-plane behavior, their out-of-plane response is very brittle and is fully controlled by the geometry, as well as the contact properties, between units (stones). Two main local failure modes of dry-joint contact are identified to lead to the global failure of the structure: (i) sliding and (ii) joint opening. Most of the existing studies investigated full structures to obtain the global response and/or couplet only, with the aim of only characterizing the contact. The present experimental work studies the effect of sliding and joint opening between stones at different scales: couplets, structures made of a few (up to five) blocks, and full walls, as well as varying the way the masonry units are assembled within a single structure. Different stones are employed to quantify potential differences. All the structures are loaded up to the collapse with a tilting table to induce out-of-plane actions. Repeatability tests are also conducted to better understand the effect of contact variability. This study unveils that the heterogeneity of the dry-joint contact, as well as the repartition of the blocks, affects the global response (both in terms of load capacity and failure mode). It also confirms that the most critical local failure mode is produced by the joint opening. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the REHABEND 2024 Congress)
Show Figures

Figure 1

27 pages, 7346 KB  
Article
Material Characteristics of Compressed Dry Masonry Made of Medium-Size Elements with Perlite Aggregate
by Adam Piekarczyk and Łukasz Drobiec
Materials 2024, 17(22), 5406; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17225406 - 5 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1281
Abstract
Dry masonry is a type of construction that is nowadays used to a limited extent in the construction sector, including the housing sector. A lack of codified computational methods enabling engineers to design consciously is one of the factors limiting the development of [...] Read more.
Dry masonry is a type of construction that is nowadays used to a limited extent in the construction sector, including the housing sector. A lack of codified computational methods enabling engineers to design consciously is one of the factors limiting the development of dry walls. This article presents results from testing an innovative solution for dry masonry made of medium-size elements with expanded perlite aggregate. Material with this type of aggregate has a low bulk density (390 ± 10% kg/m3), which allows the production of large blocks and significantly reduces the value of the thermal conductivity coefficient λ = 0.084 ± 0.003 W/m·K. The results obtained were used to determine material parameters for designing a structure mainly exposed to vertical load. The important practical significance of the presented research results from the lack of provisions, specifications or standards allowing for the design, calculation and construction of dry masonry; it is not possible to analyse the behaviour of this type of structure and to design it consciously and safely. The presented research is therefore an important source of information on mechanical parameters essential for the design of structures and provides tools for this. As a result of the tests of nine panels, the mean compressive strength was determined (1.085 N/mm2), and then the procedure of “design assisted by testing” implemented into Eurocode was used to determine characteristic (0.873 N/mm2) and design compressive strength (0.565 N/mm2). Using the relationships σ-ε, an attempt was made to identify material models for the linear and non-linear analysis of the structure and for designing cross-sections. The material models were made considering increased non-linear deformations of a structure under low stresses (the compression toe) which are true and typical for dry masonry. A specific deformability of dry masonry, slightly different to that in masonry structures joined together with mortar, also affects the reduction factor for load-bearing capacity due to second-order effects. Reduction factors determined from true non-linear deformations were lower than the values specified by EC6 for masonry structures. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 6453 KB  
Article
Application of Experimental Studies of Humidity and Temperature in the Time Domain to Determine the Physical Characteristics of a Perlite Concrete Partition
by Anna Szymczak-Graczyk, Gabriela Gajewska, Barbara Ksit, Ireneusz Laks, Wojciech Kostrzewski, Marek Urbaniak and Tomasz Pawlak
Materials 2024, 17(19), 4938; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17194938 - 9 Oct 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1181
Abstract
These days, the use of natural materials is required for sustainable and consequently plus-, zero- and low-energy construction. One of the main objectives of this research was to demonstrate that pelite concrete block masonry can be a structural and thermal insulation material. In [...] Read more.
These days, the use of natural materials is required for sustainable and consequently plus-, zero- and low-energy construction. One of the main objectives of this research was to demonstrate that pelite concrete block masonry can be a structural and thermal insulation material. In order to determine the actual thermal insulation parameters of the building partition, in situ experimental research was carried out in real conditions, taking into account the temperature distribution at different heights of the partition. Empirical measurements were made at five designated heights of the partition with temperature and humidity parameters varying over time. The described experiment was intended to verify the technical parameters of perlite concrete in terms of its thermal insulation properties as a construction material used for vertical partitions. It was shown on the basis of the results obtained that the masonry made of perlite concrete blocks with dimensions of 24 × 24.5 × 37.5 cm laid on the mounting foam can be treated as a building element that meets both the structural and thermal insulation requirements of vertical single-layer partitions. However, it is important for the material to work in a dry environment, since, as shown, a wet perlite block has twice the thermal conductivity coefficient. The results of the measurements were confirmed, for they were known from the physics of buildings, the general principles of the formation of heat and the moisture flow in the analysed masonry of a perlite block. Illustrating this regularity is shown from the course of temperature and moisture in the walls. The proposed new building material is an alternative to walls with a layer of thermal insulation made of materials such as polystyrene or wool and fits into the concept of sustainable construction, acting against climate change, reducing building operating costs, improving living and working conditions as well as fulfilling international obligations regarding environmental goals. Full article
Show Figures

Figure 1

22 pages, 33285 KB  
Article
Rising Damp Treatment in Historical Buildings by Electro-Osmosis: A Case Study
by Aliihsan Koca, Mehmet Nurettin Uğural and Ergün Yaman
Buildings 2024, 14(5), 1460; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14051460 - 17 May 2024
Viewed by 4869
Abstract
Throughout the past century, numerous technologies have been suggested to deal with the capillary rise of water through the soil in historic masonry buildings. The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of capillary moisture repulsion apparatus that uses the electro-osmosis [...] Read more.
Throughout the past century, numerous technologies have been suggested to deal with the capillary rise of water through the soil in historic masonry buildings. The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of capillary moisture repulsion apparatus that uses the electro-osmosis approach over a prolonged period of time. The Gül mosque was selected as a sample historical building affected by structural problems caused by the absorption of water through small channels on its walls due to capillary action. The moisture repulsion mechanism efficiently decreased the moisture level in the walls from a ‘wet’ state to a ‘dry’ state in roughly 9 months. After the installation of the equipment, the water mass ratio of the building decreased from 14.48% to 2.90%. It was determined that the majority of the water in the building was relocated during the initial measurement period. Furthermore, it inhibited the absorption of water by capillary action by protecting the construction elements that were in contact with the wet ground. Lastly, capillary water repulsion coefficients (C) for various measurement durations and time factors were proposed. The average value of C was calculated to be 0.152 kg/m2 s0.5 by measuring the point at which the water repulsion remained nearly constant. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
Show Figures

Figure 1

26 pages, 11522 KB  
Article
Experimental Research on Mechanism Impairment and Reinforcement of Empty Bucket Wall
by Rongdan Diao, Yinqiu Cao, Jiangen Li, Linzhu Sun and Fang Yang
Buildings 2024, 14(2), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020383 - 1 Feb 2024
Viewed by 1265
Abstract
In this study, the raw material for the empty bucket wall consists of Dalun bricks unique to South Zhejiang. The investigation focuses on the changes in compressive properties of the empty bucket wall with masonry mortar strength grades of M 2.5, M 5.0, [...] Read more.
In this study, the raw material for the empty bucket wall consists of Dalun bricks unique to South Zhejiang. The investigation focuses on the changes in compressive properties of the empty bucket wall with masonry mortar strength grades of M 2.5, M 5.0, M 7.5, and M 10.0 after a designated period of maintenance in both dry and wet environments. Following this, the empty bucket wall undergoes reinforcement, and the compressive properties are studied. The ensuing comparisons yield pertinent conclusions. Unreinforced walls maintained with varying mortar strengths in a wet environment exhibit reduced cracking loads by 5.8 to 30% and damage loads by 5.6 to 10.8% compared to their counterparts in a dry environment. Reinforced walls, maintained with different mortar strengths in wet environments, show reduced cracking loads by 6.2% to 36% and damage loads by 2.5% to 5.7% compared to those in dry environments. The stress–strain curves of unreinforced and reinforced barrel walls of various strength classes are obtained by fitting the test stress–strain data to the stress–strain data derived from corresponding model equations. These stress–strain curves for unreinforced and reinforced walls align well with the model curves, affirming the precision of the tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
Show Figures

Figure 1

19 pages, 7408 KB  
Article
Formation of Cellular Concrete Structures Based on Waste Glass and Liquid Glass
by Svetlana V. Samchenko and Andrey V. Korshunov
Buildings 2024, 14(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14010017 - 20 Dec 2023
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1943
Abstract
The use of waste in the production of building materials is one of the possible ways to solve problems related to the sustainable management of non-degradable waste and difficult-to-recycle secondary resources. In this paper, a method is proposed for the non-autoclave production of [...] Read more.
The use of waste in the production of building materials is one of the possible ways to solve problems related to the sustainable management of non-degradable waste and difficult-to-recycle secondary resources. In this paper, a method is proposed for the non-autoclave production of an ultra-lightweight cellular concrete based on Portland cement, glass waste and liquid glass. A mixture of sodium hexafluorosilicate and hydroxide is used as a hardening activator, an aluminum powder serves as a gas-forming agent. The setting and hardening of raw mixtures occurs under the action of exothermal heat release due to a complex of chemical reactions occurring in the system, and the resulting material does not require additional heat treatment. It is optimal to use two fractions of glass waste to achieve acceptable material strength: coarse crushed (fineness modulus Fm = 0.945) and finely ground (specific surface Ssp = 450–550 m2/kg) glass. Glass particles of the fine fraction of glass, along with Portland cement, participate in hydrolytic and structure-forming processes, while glass particles of the coarse fraction play the role of reinforcing filler. The influence of the dispersion of glass and the density of liquid glass on the density, porosity, strength, water absorption and water resistance of the resulting cellular material was determined. At an average density of cellular concrete in the dry state of 150–320 kg/m3, the following characteristics can be achieved: a compressive strength up to 2.0 MPa, bending strength up to 0.38 MPa, thermal conductivity coefficient of the material in the range 0.05–0.09 W/(K·m), and a maximum operating temperature of 800 °C. The proposed ultra-lightweight cellular concrete can be used as a non-combustible heat and sound insulation material, as well as a repairing composition; the cellular concrete blocks can be used as filling masonry and for the construction of non-bearing internal walls. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sustainable Building Materials)
Show Figures

Figure 1

29 pages, 15259 KB  
Article
Hygrothermal Assessment of Insulation Systems for Internal Insulation of Solid Masonry Walls under Various Conditions
by Ritvars Freimanis, Ruta Vanaga, Viesturs Balodis, Zigmars Zundans and Andra Blumberga
Buildings 2023, 13(10), 2511; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102511 - 3 Oct 2023
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2770
Abstract
Energy efficiency renovation of building stock is an essential aspect of the climate change mitigation strategies in many countries. A large proportion of building stock is historical buildings. For this building stock, developing technology for safe internal insulation of external walls is crucial, [...] Read more.
Energy efficiency renovation of building stock is an essential aspect of the climate change mitigation strategies in many countries. A large proportion of building stock is historical buildings. For this building stock, developing technology for safe internal insulation of external walls is crucial, preventing possible moisture damage to the building structures. Internal insulation is a risky technique as it has a high impact on the hygrothermal behavior of the wall. This study assesses the hygrothermal performance of massive masonry walls with 17 interior insulation systems exposed to different external boundary conditions, including a steady-state cycle, dynamic dry cycle, wind-driven cycle, and drying cycle. During the steady state cycle, the highest increase of moisture was observed under capillary active materials ranging from 39 to 119% increase in absolute moisture, with the exception of cellulose with an increase of only 7%. All the vapor-tight insulation systems showed no increase in absolute moisture during the steady-state cycle, with the exception being mineral wool in combination with a vapor barrier that showed a 30% increase in ablute humidity. In addition, relative moisture changes in masonry were measured. Results show that tested insulation systems exhibit similar thermal performance while having different moisture performance. Vapor-tight and vapor-open insulation systems exhibit different hygrothermal behavior under various test cycles depending on material vapor diffusion resistance. Numerical simulations are sensitive to the hygrothermal properties of materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
Show Figures

Figure 1

34 pages, 20648 KB  
Article
Hygrothermal Simulation of Interior Insulated Brick Wall—Perspectives on Uncertainty and Sensitivity
by Jon Ivar Knarud, Tore Kvande and Stig Geving
Buildings 2023, 13(7), 1701; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13071701 - 3 Jul 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2544
Abstract
Energy retrofit of existing masonry buildings has become attractive to meet demands for reduction in energy consumption. Retrofit may, however, introduce moisture risk that needs to be assessed. Hygrothermal simulation analysis is often conducted in this respect. Nevertheless, hygrothermal simulation of interior insulated [...] Read more.
Energy retrofit of existing masonry buildings has become attractive to meet demands for reduction in energy consumption. Retrofit may, however, introduce moisture risk that needs to be assessed. Hygrothermal simulation analysis is often conducted in this respect. Nevertheless, hygrothermal simulation of interior insulated bare brick masonry exposed to driving rain can be challenging due to the many aspects involved that determine heat- and moisture-transport behavior, and which should be addressed by an applied model. The present study highlights uncertainty encountered when establishing a hygrothermal simulation model. Furthermore, different modeling choices or simplifications are studied to determine impact on results. As a check of realism, results of 2D simulations are compared to results of a previous laboratory experiment of masonry wall segments subjected to severe rain wetting and subsequent drying. Rain absorption is modeled conservatively, attempting simulation results to envelope experiment results. Conservative results were not achieved for a relative humidity sensor placed on the masonry interior without inclusion of a “leaky” mortar joint. Simultaneously, the conservative approach underestimated drying experienced by the relative humidity sensor in two of three experiment wall segments. Regarding beam-end moisture content, the modeling approach conservatively enveloped experiment results in 3D but not in 2D. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
Show Figures

Figure 1

Back to TopTop