Search Results (39)

Plant lecithins are complex mixtures of phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylinositol (PI), phosphatidic acid (PA) and lysophospholipids. They are increasingly demanded as natural, non-allergenic emulsifiers and as nutraceutical carriers. Quantitative data on the phospholipid (PL) fraction of less-commodity oilseeds, however, remain dispersed. This review compares the PL composition, processing-dependent extractability, and functional behavior of six oils: hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), corn/maize (Zea mays L., germ), pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.), flax/linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.), and camelina (Camelina sativa L.). Across the six oils, total PL content varies by more than an order of magnitude (c.a. 0.25% in camelina oil bodies; >1% in solvent-extracted hemp and c.a. 0.5–1.0% in Styrian pumpkin oil), and PC fraction ranges from 30% (hemp seed tissue) to 56% (rapeseed-comparable sunflower). Flax stands out for both an exceptionally high PE share (22.7%) and a polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content in the PL fraction (53.3%) that exceeds rapeseed, sunflower and soy by an order of magnitude. We integrate recent extraction (cold pressing, supercritical CO₂, microwave-assisted, aqueous enzymatic) and degumming data (water, acid, enzymatic with phospholipases A1/A2/C) with functional evidence in emulsions, oil bodies, and bioactive delivery. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is among the earliest domesticated crops and remains agronomically and economically important due to its dual use for fibre and seed (oil) production. In recent years, renewed interest in flax has emerged from its role in diversified and sustainable agriculture, human nutrition, and bio-based industrial applications. This review provides a comprehensive agronomic synthesis of global flax production, integrating worldwide production trends, genetic resource availability, and the main agronomic drivers governing crop establishment, growth, yield, and quality. Particular emphasis is placed on climatic requirements, soil and nutrient management, crop management practices, and water use, as well as on the contrasting requirements of fibre flax and seed flax. Despite growing research efforts, agronomic knowledge on flax remains fragmented across environments, production purposes, and management strategies, limiting the translation of experimental findings into robust, environment-specific crop management recommendations. Sustainable intensification of flax production will therefore depend on integrating optimized agronomic practices with breeding strategies that exploit existing genetic diversity to improve yield stability, quality, and resilience under increasing climatic variability. Full article

Efficient nutrient management is essential for enhancing flax productivity under semi-arid conditions. A two-year field experiment (2024–2025) was conducted in southeast Kazakhstan to evaluate the effects of integrated foliar fertilization with macro- and micronutrients and biofertilizers on the growth, seed quality, and yield of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with five treatments: T1 (control, absolute zero fertilization (N₀P₀K₀), i.e., soil without any additional nutrient applications), T2 (N₆₀P₆₀K₆₀), T3 (N₆₀P₆₀K₆₀ + foliar macro–micronutrients), T4 (biofertilizer), and T5 (N₆₀P₆₀K₆₀ + foliar macro–micronutrients + biofertilizer). Integrated foliar fertilization significantly increased nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium concentrations in vegetative biomass and seeds, leading to higher nutrient uptake and improved nutrient use efficiency compared with mineral fertilization alone. Treatments combining foliar macro- and micronutrients with biofertilizers (T3 and T5) enhanced plant establishment, biomass accumulation, and dry matter allocation to reproductive organs. Seed yield increased from 0.58 to 0.89 t ha⁻¹, while protein and oil contents ranged from 27.0 to 28.4% and 39.8–41.8%, respectively. The combined foliar treatment showed the highest and most stable performance, likely due to improved nutrient uptake and plant growth. These findings indicate that integrated foliar fertilization is an effective and sustainable strategy for improving flax yield stability, nutrient efficiency, and seed quality under semi-arid conditions. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a crop widely cultivated for fiber and oil production. The screening method for flax breeding must effectively address the biochemical characteristics of flaxseeds. In this study, to characterize flax cultivars, we extracted oil, defatted kernel, hull, and mucilage from whole seeds for the ATR-FT-MIR and FT-Raman spectroscopic measurements. In addition, for ATR-FT-MIR analysis, oil samples were obtained by pressing the flaxseed directly onto the crystal surface. After removing any seed residues, a grease stain was used for the measurement, allowing for the acquisition of the oil spectrum from a single seed. This method also enabled the detection of free fatty acids, serving as evidence of seed damage. Both methods effectively estimated the degree of unsaturation as a cultivar marker. The vibrational spectra of defatted kernels showed strong protein features; polysaccharide bands dominated in hull and mucilage spectra. Discrimination of flax cultivars using principal component analysis of vibrational spectra in specific regions was the most promising for flaxseed oil and mucilage. Multivariate analysis of a set of selected variables sensitive to the flaxseed oil composition successfully distinguished all flax cultivars of this study. The strong correlation observed between ATR-FT-MIR and FT-Raman results confirmed that these methods are comparable for characterizing different grades of flaxseed oil. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a multipurpose crop known for its highly nutritious seeds. This study aimed to determine how plant density and fertilizer type influence the nutritional composition of flaxseed, addressing a gap in the literature where combined effects on seed quality have not been thoroughly evaluated. Two plant densities (D1, 500 plants m⁻²; D2, 300 plants m⁻²) and four fertilizers (control, C; inhibited urea, I; organic, O; and urea, U), were compared. According to the results, the interactions of these factors influenced most of the traits. The highest yields were reported at D1I. Organic fertilization improved protein (7%) and fat (28%) content and reduced fiber (46%) and carbohydrates. In contrast, inorganic fertilization increased fiber, NDF (10%) and ADF (8%) content. Mineral composition was also affected, with O and I increasing K, Mg, Fe and Cu by 31%, 6%, 14% and 24% for O and 48%, 1%, 17% and 18%, respectively, for I. The correlation matrix analysis revealed a positive relationship between protein and fat content, whereas both traits were negatively correlated with fiber and carbohydrates. Overall, optimized density and fertilizer can improve the quality of flaxseed, supporting its use as functional food and feed ingredient. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a retrovative crop with highly nutritious seeds. The study aimed to assess the effect of plant density and type of fertilizer on crop growth and productivity. A three-year experiment was conducted at the Agricultural University of Athens, focusing on two densities (D1 and D2) and four fertilizers (urea with inhibitors (I), organic (O), urea (U) and control (C)). Measurements included plant height, dry weight, number of capsules, number of seeds per capsule, Thousand Seeds Weight (TSW), yield, Harvest Index (HI), seed oil content and oil yield. Fertilization increased plant height (14.6–15.2%), dry weight (34.1%) and number of capsules (24.9%). D2 improved biomass production by 52.6%, while D1 increased the number of capsules by 16.4%. TSW increased by 6.7 and 23.9% at D2 and fertilized treatments, respectively. Yield, HI and oil yield were affected by the interaction of density and fertilization, while seed oil content was affected only by fertilization. D2I increased yield by 67.9% compared to D2C, while oil yield increased over twofold. Overall, flax represents a promising alternative crop against climate change in the Mediterranean Basin. Full article

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the morphogenetic efficiency of the new flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) cultivar Silesia. The plant material consisted of five ecotypes of Silesia seeds selected by determining the fatty acid composition in individual plants. Thus, five ecotypes with different fatty acid compositions were applied for germination, and the resulting seedlings were used for callus induction. The observed in vitro morphogenic response of explants to the used callus induction medium was 100%, followed by varying development of shoots, with the highest value being 17 shoots per callus, with an average length of 7.15 cm (for ecotype 1). The biochemical analyses showed photosynthetic pigments were significantly affected by the tested ecotypes. The main conclusion is that the selection of plant material as a source of tissue cultures is crucial for efficient regeneration and organogenesis. One factor potentially influencing these processes is fatty acid composition and the ratio of linoleic to α-linolenic acid. A ratio ranging from 1.36 to 1.68 in the source material (seeds) used for initiation of tissue cultures resulted in the highest efficiency of shoot regeneration and number of obtained shoots per callus. A strong negative correlation (−0.78) was observed between shoot regeneration efficiency and the ratio of linoleic to α-linolenic acid in seeds from which the explants were obtained. Moreover, an efficient protocol of micropropagation from callus tissue was established for the new flax cultivar Silesia. An interesting insight into the metabolism of the obtained regenerants allowed us to determine the relationship between the content of chlorophyll and rhizogenesis efficiency. For these two parameters, the calculated correlation coefficient was 0.66. A strong relationship (high correlation coefficient: 0.79) was also established between flavonoid content and length of obtained regenerants, pointing to the developmental role of flavonoids. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is a globally important oilseed crop, valued for its edible and industrial uses. Flax seeds are rich in unsaturated fatty acids. In this study, ethyl methyl sulfone was employed to construct a mutant library from the flax cultivar Longya 10 (WT). Screening efforts identified M45, a stable mutant with an oleic acid content of 43.22% at 40 days after flowering, representing a 21.23% increase over the wild-type. RNA-Seq analysis revealed the presence of two homologs of the SAD (stearoyl-ACP desaturase) family and two homologs of the FAD2 (fatty acid desaturase 2) family, which showed differential expression in a trend consistent with the phenotype of M45. A BSA-Seq analysis was conducted to identify genes with SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) and Indel (insertions/deletions) variant loci that were associated with increased oleic acid. The combination of BSA-Seq, RNA-Seq, and metabolomic analyses identified L.us.o.g.scaffold122.86, a gene that may be co-expressed with L.us.o.g.scaffold7.26 to affect oleic acid accumulation via FAD2. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is valued for its fibers and nutrient-rich seeds, which are increasingly consumed for their health benefits. However, flaxseeds can also accumulate potentially toxic elements (PTEs), raising concerns about safety. This study quantified 11 essential elements (e.g., Ca, Fe, Mg, and Zn) and 9 PTEs (e.g., Al, Cd, Pb, and Ni) in commercial flaxseed samples using inductively coupled plasma–optical emission spectrometry. Two intake scenarios (15 g/day and 30 g/day) were analyzed to estimate dietary exposure, with health risks assessed through the target hazard quotient (THQ) and hazard index (HI). The results showed that organic flaxseeds had higher levels of certain elements (e.g., Cu, K, and Pb), while Al and Ni were more abundant in conventional samples. Cadmium levels in both remained below the EU regulatory limit. The highest estimated daily intakes were for K, Mg, and Ca, highlighting the seeds’ nutritional value. However, HI values suggested that Al and Pb could pose health risks. These findings emphasize flaxseeds’ dual nature as both beneficial and potentially harmful, particularly given the lack of specific regulatory limits and limited data on elemental composition. Continued monitoring and risk assessment are recommended to safeguard public health. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seed is rich in α-linolenic acid, lignans, and fiber, which have potential health benefits. However, the potential toxicity of its cyanogenic glycosides limits its widespread use. The cytochrome P450 gene family is one of the largest gene families in plants and is involved in synthesizing phytohormones, secondary metabolites, and various defense compounds. Two P450 genes have been found to be important enzymes for the biosynthesis of cyanogenic glycosides in common sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench). However, the P450 gene family and its involvement in cyanogenic glycoside synthesis have been less studied in flax. In previous studies, we assembled a high-quality flax genome. In this study, a total of 412 P450 genes were identified in the flax genome, with molecular weights in the range of 7.42 kDa to 154.5 kDa and encoding amino acid lengths between 67 and 1378. These genes belonged to 48 families under eight clans and were distributed across 15 chromosomes. The number of introns varied from 0 to 14. Thirty-nine cis-acting elements were identified within 1500 bp upstream of the promoter, mainly related to the light response. There were 147 segmental duplications and 53 tandem duplication events among these P450 genes. Eleven genes potentially related to cyanogenic glycoside synthesis were identified by transcriptome analysis, and the RT-qPCR results verified the reliability of the transcriptome analysis. This study lays the foundation for the classification and functional study of the flax P450 gene family. The results will be useful for breeding new low-cyanogenic-glycoside flax varieties by genetic engineering. Full article

Bioactive molecules present in plant products determine their very valuable health-promoting properties. Among the plants, due to these properties, particular attention is paid to the seeds of common flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), which have been used for over 6000 years and are known for their benefits. A review of 117 scientific articles indexed in PubMed/MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, and Wiley Online Library, published between 1997 and 2024, was conducted. These seeds are characterized by a high content of valuable nutrients, such as essential omega-3 fatty acids, including α-linolenic acid (ALA), lignans, isoflavones, phytoestrogens, flavonoids, vitamins, and minerals that influence the digestive system function and have anti-cancer properties. The presence of these bioactive compounds in flaxseeds provide anti-cancer properties. Full article

Supercritical fluid extraction using carbon dioxide (SFE-CO₂) brings a convincing advance in the production of plant oils used in cosmetics, in fortified foods and dietary supplements, and in pharmaceuticals and medicine. The SFE-CO₂-extracted, hexane-extracted, and cold-pressed plant oils of pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.), flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), linden (Tilia sp.), poppy (Papaver somniferum L.), apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), and marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) seeds were investigated in terms of oil yield, fatty acid composition, unsaponifiable matter yield and composition, and the antioxidant activity of unsaponifiable matter. SFE-CO₂ proved to be the preferred extraction method for four out of six plant materials, especially for seeds with lower oil content. However, for seeds with higher oil content, such as apricots, cold pressing is a viable alternative. A comparison of fatty acid composition did not reveal significant differences between extraction techniques. SFE-CO₂ extraction improved the total phytosterol content of oils, especially pumpkin seed oil. A high variability in the antioxidant potential of the unsaponifiable matter studied was determined, with pumpkin seed oil showing the highest antioxidant activity. A correlation analysis was performed between unsaponifiable composition and antioxidant activity, and showed statistically significant correlations with squalene, cycloartenol, and an unidentified compound. This is the first comparison of the phytosterol compositions of linseed, apricot, linden, and marigold. Through continued optimization, SFE-CO₂ has the potential to revolutionize the production of plant oils and provide a sustainable and efficient alternative. Full article

Flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) is an important crop plant with pharmaceutical significance. It is described in pharmacopoeias (the United States Pharmacopeia and the European Pharmacopoeia), which confirms that it (especially the seeds) is a valuable medicinal product. Similar to flax seeds, which accumulate bioactive compounds, flax in vitro cultures are also a rich source of flavonoids, phenolics, lignans and neolignans. In the present study, flax suspension cultures after treatment of the non-pathogenic Fusarium oxysporum strain Fo47 were established and analyzed. The study examined the suitability of Fo47 as an elicitor in flax suspension cultures and provided interesting data on the impact of these endophytic fungi on plant metabolism and physiology. Two flax cultivars (Bukoz and Nike) and two compositions of media for flax callus liquid cultures were tested. Biochemical analysis revealed enhanced levels of secondary metabolites (total flavonoid and total phenolic content) and photosynthetically active pigments in the flax callus cultures after treatment with the non-pathogenic fungal strain F. oxysporum Fo47 when compared to control, untreated cultures. In cultures with the selected, optimized conditions, FTIR analysis was performed and revealed changes in the structural properties of cell wall polymers after elicitation of cultures with F. oxysporum Fo47. The plant cell wall polymers were more strongly bound, and the crystallinity index (Icr) of cellulose was higher than in control, untreated samples. However, lignin and pectin levels were lower in the flax callus liquid cultures treated with the non-pathogenic strain of Fusarium when compared to the untreated control. The potential application of the non-pathogenic strain of F. oxysporum for enhancing the synthesis of desired secondary metabolites in plant tissue cultures is discussed. Full article

The research is focused on the quantitative evaluation of the flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) proteome at the level of seed cake (SC), fine flour—sieved a fraction below 250 µm (FF)—and protein concentrate (PC). The evaluation was performed on three oilseed flax cultivars (Agriol, Raciol, and Libra) with different levels of α-linolenic acid content using LC-MS/MS (shotgun proteomics) analysis, which was finalized by database searching using the NCBI protein database for Linum usitatissimum and related species. A total of 2560 protein groups (PGs) were identified, and their relative abundance was calculated. A set of 33 quantitatively most significant PGs was selected for further characterization. The selected PGs were divided into four classes—seed storage proteins (11S globulins and conlinins), oleosins, defense- and stress-related proteins, and other major proteins (mainly including enzymes). Seed storage proteins were found to be the most abundant proteins. Specifically, 11S globulins accounted for 41–44% of SC proteins, 40–46% of FF proteins, and 72–84% of PC proteins, depending on the cultivar. Conlinins (2S albumins) were the most abundant in FF, ranging from 10 to 13% (depending on cultivar). The second most important class from the point of relative abundance was oleosins, which were represented in SC and FF in the range of 2.1–3.8%, but only 0.36–1.20% in PC. Surprisingly, a relatively high abundance of chitinase was found in flax products as a protein related to defence and stress reactions. Full article

Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is a bioactive compound exhibiting multiple actions and positive effects on human health due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. KYNA has been found to have a beneficial effect on wound healing and the prevention of scarring. Despite notable progress in the research focused on KYNA observed during the last 10 years, KYNA’s presence in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) has not been proven to date. In the present study, parts of flax plants were analysed for KYNA synthesis. Moreover, eight different cultivars of flax seeds were tested for the presence of KYNA, resulting in a maximum of 0.432 µg/g FW in the seeds of the cultivar Jan. The level of KYNA was also tested in the stems and roots of two selected flax cultivars: an oily cultivar (Linola) and a fibrous cultivar (Nike). The exposure of plants to the KYNA precursors tryptophan and kynurenine resulted in higher levels of KYNA accumulation in flax shoots and roots. Thus, the obtained results indicate that KYNA might be synthesized in flax. The highest amount of KYNA (295.9 µg/g dry weight [DW]) was detected in flax roots derived from plants grown in tissue cultures supplemented with tryptophan. A spectroscopic analysis of KYNA was performed using the FTIR/ATR method. It was found that, in tested samples, the characteristic KYNA vibration bands overlap with the bands corresponding to the vibrations of biopolymers (especially pectin and cellulose) present in flax plants and fibres. Full article