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35 pages, 96586 KiB  
Article
Mechanistic Understanding of Field-Scale Geysers in Stormsewer Systems Using Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling
by Sumit R. Zanje, Pratik Mahyawansi, Abbas Sharifi, Arturo S. Leon, Victor Petrov and Yuriy Yu Infimovskiy
Processes 2025, 13(1), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13010032 - 26 Dec 2024
Viewed by 487
Abstract
Consecutive oscillatory eruptions of a mixture of gas and liquid in urban stormwater systems, commonly referred to as sewer geysers, are investigated using transient three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models. This study provides a detailed mechanistic understanding of geyser formation under partially [...] Read more.
Consecutive oscillatory eruptions of a mixture of gas and liquid in urban stormwater systems, commonly referred to as sewer geysers, are investigated using transient three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models. This study provides a detailed mechanistic understanding of geyser formation under partially filled dropshaft conditions, an area not previously explored in depth. The maximum geyser eruption velocities were observed to reach 14.58 m/s under fully filled initial conditions (hw/hd = 1) and reduced to 5.17 m/s and 3.02 m/s for partially filled conditions (hw/hd = 0.5 and 0.23, respectively). The pressure gradients along the horizontal pipe drove slug formation and correlated directly with the air ingress rates and dropshaft configurations. The influence of the dropshaft diameter was also assessed, showing a 116% increase in eruption velocity when the dropshaft to horizontal pipe diameter ratio (Dd/Dt) was reduced from 1.0 to 0.5. It was found that the strength of the geyser (as represented by the eruption velocity from the top of the dropshaft) increased with an increase in the initial water depth in the dropshaft and a reduction in the dropshaft diameter. Additionally, the Kelvin–Helmholtz instability criteria were satisfied during transitions from stratified to slug flow, and they were responsible for the jump and transition of the flow during the initial rise and fallback of the water in the dropshaft. The present study shows that, under an initially lower water depth in the dropshaft, immediate spillage is not guaranteed. However, the subsequent mixing of air from the horizontal pipe generated a less dense mixture, causing a change in pressure distribution along the tunnel, which drove the entire geyser mechanism. This study underscores the critical role of the initial conditions and geometric parameters in influencing geyser dynamics, offering practical guidelines for urban drainage infrastructure. Full article
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18 pages, 5919 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Impact of Nature-Based Solutions for Hydrological Extremes Mitigation in Small Mixed Urban-Forest Catchment
by Lina Pérez-Corredor, Samuel Edward Hume, Mark Bryan Alivio and Nejc Bezak
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11813; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411813 - 18 Dec 2024
Viewed by 593
Abstract
Many regions in Europe face increasing issues with flooding and droughts due to changing rainfall patterns caused by climate change. For example, higher rainfall intensities increase urban flooding. Nature-based solutions (NbS) are suggested as a key mitigation strategy for floods. This study aims [...] Read more.
Many regions in Europe face increasing issues with flooding and droughts due to changing rainfall patterns caused by climate change. For example, higher rainfall intensities increase urban flooding. Nature-based solutions (NbS) are suggested as a key mitigation strategy for floods. This study aims to address and mitigate the challenges faced in Tivoli natural park in Ljubljana regarding high peak discharges and low-flow issues in the creek entering the sewer system. The study involves setting up, calibrating and validating a Hydrologic Engineering Centre–Hydrologic Modelling System (HEC-HMS) model using available data. This study analyses NbS, such as small ponds, green roofs and permeable paving, to reduce peak discharge. Runoff was reduced by an average of 32.4% with all NbS implemented and peak discharge by 20 L/s. Permeable parking performed best, with an average runoff reduction of 6.4%, compared to 4.8% for permeable streets and 5.9% for green roofs. The ponds reduced peak discharge, although their effectiveness varied between rainfall events. Rainfall events with higher volumes and durations tended to overwhelm the proposed solutions, reducing their effectiveness. The ability of HEC-HMS to model NbS is also discussed. The curve number (CN) parameter and impervious % alterations to simulate NbS provided quantitative data on changes in runoff and discharge. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Urban Green Infrastructure and Its Effects)
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18 pages, 1899 KiB  
Review
Methane Production Mechanism and Control Strategies for Sewers: A Critical Review
by Feng Hou, Shuai Liu, Wan-Xin Yin, Li-Li Gan, Hong-Tao Pang, Jia-Qiang Lv, Ying Liu, Ai-Jie Wang and Hong-Cheng Wang
Water 2024, 16(24), 3618; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16243618 - 16 Dec 2024
Viewed by 694
Abstract
Methane (CH4) emissions from urban sewer systems represent a significant contributor to greenhouse gases, driven by anaerobic decomposition processes. This review elucidates the mechanisms underlying CH4 production in sewers, which are influenced by environmental factors such as the COD/SO4 [...] Read more.
Methane (CH4) emissions from urban sewer systems represent a significant contributor to greenhouse gases, driven by anaerobic decomposition processes. This review elucidates the mechanisms underlying CH4 production in sewers, which are influenced by environmental factors such as the COD/SO42− ratio, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, flow rate, and hydraulic retention time. We critically evaluated the effectiveness of empirical, mechanistic, and machine learning (ML) models in predicting CH4 emissions, highlighting the limitations of each. This review further examines control strategies, including oxygen injection, iron salt dosing, and nitrate application, emphasizing the importance of balancing CH4 reduction with the operational efficiency of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). An integrated approach combining mechanistic and data-driven models is advocated to enhance prediction accuracy and optimize CH4 management across urban sewer systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Water Management)
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32 pages, 6180 KiB  
Article
Improving Sewer Damage Inspection: Development of a Deep Learning Integration Concept for a Multi-Sensor System
by Jan Thomas Jung and Alexander Reiterer
Sensors 2024, 24(23), 7786; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24237786 - 5 Dec 2024
Viewed by 828
Abstract
The maintenance and inspection of sewer pipes are essential to urban infrastructure but remain predominantly manual, resource-intensive, and prone to human error. Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) and computer vision offer significant potential to automate sewer inspections, improving reliability and reducing costs. However, [...] Read more.
The maintenance and inspection of sewer pipes are essential to urban infrastructure but remain predominantly manual, resource-intensive, and prone to human error. Advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) and computer vision offer significant potential to automate sewer inspections, improving reliability and reducing costs. However, the existing vision-based inspection robots fail to provide data quality sufficient for training reliable deep learning (DL) models. To address these limitations, we propose a novel multi-sensor robotic system coupled with a DL integration concept. Following a comprehensive review of the current 2D (image) and 3D (point cloud) sewage pipe inspection methods, we identify key limitations and propose a system incorporating a camera array, front camera, and LiDAR sensor to optimise surface capture and enhance data quality. Damage types are assigned to the sensor best suited for their detection and quantification, while tailored DL models are proposed for each sensor type to maximise performance. This approach enables the optimal detection and processing of relevant damage types, achieving higher accuracy for each compared to single-sensor systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue AI-Based Computer Vision Sensors & Systems)
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27 pages, 8948 KiB  
Article
Defect Detection and 3D Reconstruction of Complex Urban Underground Pipeline Scenes for Sewer Robots
by Ruihao Liu, Zhongxi Shao, Qiang Sun and Zhenzhong Yu
Sensors 2024, 24(23), 7557; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24237557 - 26 Nov 2024
Viewed by 864
Abstract
Detecting defects in complex urban sewer scenes is crucial for urban underground structure health monitoring. However, most image-based sewer defect detection models are complex, have high resource consumption, and fail to provide detailed damage information. To increase defect detection efficiency, visualize pipelines, and [...] Read more.
Detecting defects in complex urban sewer scenes is crucial for urban underground structure health monitoring. However, most image-based sewer defect detection models are complex, have high resource consumption, and fail to provide detailed damage information. To increase defect detection efficiency, visualize pipelines, and enable deployment on edge devices, this paper proposes a computer vision-based robotic defect detection framework for sewers. The framework encompasses positioning, defect detection, model deployment, 3D reconstruction, and the measurement of realistic pipelines. A lightweight Sewer-YOLO-Slim model is introduced, which reconstructs the YOLOv7-tiny network by adjusting its backbone, neck, and head. Channel pruning is applied to further reduce the model’s complexity. Additionally, a multiview reconstruction technique is employed to build a 3D model of the pipeline from images captured by the sewer robot, allowing for accurate measurements. The Sewer-YOLO-Slim model achieves reductions of 60.2%, 60.0%, and 65.9% in model size, parameters, and floating-point operations (FLOPs), respectively, while improving the mean average precision (mAP) by 1.5%, reaching 93.5%. Notably, the pruned model is only 4.9 MB in size. Comprehensive comparisons and analyses are conducted with 12 mainstream detection algorithms to validate the superiority of the proposed model. The model is deployed on edge devices with the aid of TensorRT for acceleration, and the detection speed reaches 15.3 ms per image. For a real section of the pipeline, the maximum measurement error of the 3D reconstruction model is 0.57 m. These results indicate that the proposed sewer inspection framework is effective, with the detection model exhibiting advanced performance in terms of accuracy, low computational demand, and real-time capability. The 3D modeling approach offers valuable insights for underground pipeline data visualization and defect measurement. Full article
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16 pages, 6033 KiB  
Article
Urban Waterlogging Simulation and Disaster Risk Analysis Using InfoWorks Integrated Catchment Management: A Case Study from the Yushan Lake Area of Ma’anshan City in China
by Kun Wang, Jian Chen, Hao Hu, Yuchao Tang, Jian Huang, Youbing Wu, Jingyu Lu and Jinjun Zhou
Water 2024, 16(23), 3383; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16233383 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 658
Abstract
Under the dual pressures of climate change and urbanization, cities in China are experiencing increasingly severe flooding. Using the Yushan Lake area in Ma’anshan City, Anhui Province, as a case study, we employed the InfoWorks Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) hydraulic model to analyze [...] Read more.
Under the dual pressures of climate change and urbanization, cities in China are experiencing increasingly severe flooding. Using the Yushan Lake area in Ma’anshan City, Anhui Province, as a case study, we employed the InfoWorks Integrated Catchment Management (ICM) hydraulic model to analyze the drainage and flood prevention system of the region and assess the current infrastructure for drainage and flood control. There are 117 pipelines with a return period lower than one year for stormwater and combined sewer systems, accounting for 12.3% of the total number of pipelines. The number of pipelines meeting the one-year but not the three-year return period standard is 700, representing 70.2%. Only 17.5% of the pipelines are capable of handling events exceeding the one-year standard. In simulating a 24 h, 30-year return period rainfall event, the results indicate that floodwater accumulation in the study area is predominantly between 0.15 m and 0.3 m. Most risk areas are classified as low risk, covering an area of 36.398 hectares, followed by medium and high-risk areas, which cover 8.226 hectares and 3.087 hectares, respectively. The Ma’anshan Yushan Lake area has, overall, certain flood control capabilities but faces flood risks during storms with return periods exceeding three years. This research offers valuable insights for improving urban flood management in Ma’anshan City through the development of a stormwater management model for the Yushan Lake area. Full article
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17 pages, 6037 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Storm Sewer Network Simplification and Rainfall Runoff Methods on Urban Flood Analysis
by Sang-Bo Sim and Hyung-Jun Kim
Water 2024, 16(22), 3307; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223307 - 18 Nov 2024
Viewed by 633
Abstract
Due to the impact of climate change, the importance of urban flood analysis is increasing. One of the biggest challenges in urban flood simulations is the complexity of storm sewer networks, which significantly affects both computational time and accuracy. This study aimed to [...] Read more.
Due to the impact of climate change, the importance of urban flood analysis is increasing. One of the biggest challenges in urban flood simulations is the complexity of storm sewer networks, which significantly affects both computational time and accuracy. This study aimed to analyze and evaluate the impact of sewer network simplification on the accuracy and computational performance of urban flood prediction by comparing different rainfall runoff methods. Using the hyper-connected solution for urban flood (HC-SURF) model, two rainfall runoff methods, the SWMM Runoff method and the Surface Runoff method, were compared. The sewer network simplification was applied based on manhole catchment areas ranging from 10 m2 to 10,000 m2. The analysis showed that the computation time could be reduced by up to 54.5% through simplification, though some accuracy loss may occur depending on the chosen runoff method. Overall, both methods produced excellent results in terms of mass balance, but the SWMM Runoff method minimized the reduction in analytical performance due to simplification. This study provides important insights into balancing computational efficiency and model accuracy in urban flood analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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5 pages, 952 KiB  
Proceeding Paper
Design Storms for First Flush Modelling at Sewer Inlets
by Gianfranco Becciu, Anita Raimondi and Umberto Sanfilippo
Eng. Proc. 2024, 69(1), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024069200 - 21 Oct 2024
Viewed by 448
Abstract
First flush is one of the key phenomena in the dynamics of pollutants in urban drainage. It is affected by a number of factors, like the characteristics of urban surfaces and drainage systems, the rainfall patterns, the street sweeping frequency and efficiency, and [...] Read more.
First flush is one of the key phenomena in the dynamics of pollutants in urban drainage. It is affected by a number of factors, like the characteristics of urban surfaces and drainage systems, the rainfall patterns, the street sweeping frequency and efficiency, and the gully pot features. This paper discusses how a storm event can maximize pollution mass and concentration in first flush runoff. It turns out that the critical events derive from particular combinations of factors and not necessarily from the maximum values of rainfall depths or intensities. Full article
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5 pages, 3630 KiB  
Proceeding Paper
Large-Scale Real-Time Hydraulic and Quality Model of Combined Sewer Network—Case Study in Helsinki, Finland
by Markus I. Sunela, Pedro Almeida, Hanna Riihinen and Hannes Björninen
Eng. Proc. 2024, 69(1), 185; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024069185 - 10 Oct 2024
Viewed by 432
Abstract
A method for a real-time now- and forecasting hydraulic and quality simulation model for combined sewer networks, based on an enhanced version of the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) simulator, with added support for storing the hot start file at any time during [...] Read more.
A method for a real-time now- and forecasting hydraulic and quality simulation model for combined sewer networks, based on an enhanced version of the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) simulator, with added support for storing the hot start file at any time during the simulation, the rotational speed control of the pumps, multiple dry weather flows with unique patterns, and improvements for quality simulations over control devices is presented. The methodology is applied in the combined sewer network of Helsinki, Finland. The model includes all pipes and dry weather flows, including the pollutants, catchment hydrology, infiltration, snowpacks, and other climate aspects. Full article
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20 pages, 11222 KiB  
Article
Capacity Assessment of a Combined Sewer Network under Different Weather Conditions: Using Nature-Based Solutions to Increase Resilience
by Panagiota Galiatsatou, Antigoni Zafeirakou, Iraklis Nikoletos, Argyro Gkatzioura, Maria Kapouniari, Anastasia Katsoulea, Dimitrios Malamataris and Ioannis Kavouras
Water 2024, 16(19), 2862; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192862 - 9 Oct 2024
Viewed by 969
Abstract
Severe weather conditions and urban intensification are key factors affecting the response of combined sewer systems, especially during storm events. In this regard, the capacity assessment of combined sewer networks under the impact of rainfall storm events of different return periods was the [...] Read more.
Severe weather conditions and urban intensification are key factors affecting the response of combined sewer systems, especially during storm events. In this regard, the capacity assessment of combined sewer networks under the impact of rainfall storm events of different return periods was the focus of this work. The selected case study area was a mixed-use catchment in the city centre of Thessaloniki, Greece. The hydraulic performance of the examined sewer network was assessed using an InfoWorks ICM model. The results indicated that mitigation strategies, such as the application of nature-based solutions (NBSs) or low-impact developments (LIDs) are considered essential for controlling combined sewer overflows. A multicriteria analysis was conducted to select the most appropriate NBSs/LIDs to be located in the study area to enhance the system’s capacity. The results of this multicriteria analysis were used to propose a combined sewer overflow mitigation scenario, based on the installation of green roofs, as the most highly ranked solution in the analysis performed. Incorporating the proposed NBS/LID in the hydrologic-hydraulic model significantly increased the performance of the studied combined sewer network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Hydrology)
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20 pages, 4521 KiB  
Article
Optimizing the Activation of WWTP Wet-Weather Operation Using Radar-Based Flow and Volume Forecasting with the Relative Economic Value (REV) Approach
by Vianney Courdent, Thomas Munk-Nielsen and Peter Steen Mikkelsen
Water 2024, 16(19), 2806; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192806 - 2 Oct 2024
Viewed by 713
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) connected to combined sewer systems must cope with high flows during wet-weather conditions, often leading to bypass and thus pollution of water bodies. Radar rainfall forecasts coupled with a rainfall-runoff model provides flow and volume forecasts that can be [...] Read more.
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) connected to combined sewer systems must cope with high flows during wet-weather conditions, often leading to bypass and thus pollution of water bodies. Radar rainfall forecasts coupled with a rainfall-runoff model provides flow and volume forecasts that can be used for deciding when to switch from normal to wet-weather operation, which temporarily allows for higher inflow. However, forecasts are by definition uncertain and may lead to potential mismanagement, e.g., false alarms and misses. Our study focused on two years of operational data from the Damhuså sewer catchment and WWTP. We used the Relative Economic Value (REV) framework to optimize the control parameters of a baseline control strategy (thresholds on flow measurements and radar flow prognosis) and to test new control strategies based on volume instead of flow thresholds. We investigated two situations with different objective functions, considering higher negative impact from misses than false alarms and vice versa, and obtained in both cases a reduction of the rate of false alarms, higher flow thresholds and lower bypass compared to the baseline control. We also assess a new control strategy that employs thresholds of predicted accumulated volume instead of predicted flow and achieved even better results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
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23 pages, 8642 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Green Infrastructure on the Quality of Stormwater and Environmental Risk
by Izabela Godyń, Agnieszka Grela, Krzysztof Muszyński and Justyna Pamuła
Sustainability 2024, 16(19), 8530; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198530 - 30 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1471
Abstract
Increasing urbanization and the associated sealing of areas and the use of storm sewer systems for drainage not only increase the risk of flooding but also reduce water quality in streams into which stormwater is discharged. Green infrastructure (GI) measures are applied with [...] Read more.
Increasing urbanization and the associated sealing of areas and the use of storm sewer systems for drainage not only increase the risk of flooding but also reduce water quality in streams into which stormwater is discharged. Green infrastructure (GI) measures are applied with the aim of managing this stormwater sustainably and reducing the associated risks. To this end, a quantitative–qualitative approach was developed to simulate GI—namely, rain gardens, bioretention cells, and vegetative bioswales—at the urban catchment scale. The findings highlight the potential of applying GI measures to managing stormwater more effectively in urban environments and mitigating its negative pollution-related impacts. For the housing estate analyzed, a simulated implementation of GI resulted in a reduction in pollution, measured as total nitrogen (N; 9–52%), nitrate-N (5–30%), total phosphorus (11–59%), chemical oxygen demand (8–46%), total suspended solids (13–73%), copper (12–64%), zinc (Zn; 16–87%), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (16–91%), and the hydrocarbon oil index (HOI; 15–85%). Reducing the concentrations of pollutants minimizes the risk to human health determined via the HOI from a low-risk level to zero risk and reduces the ecological risk in terms of Zn pollution from a significant risk to a low risk of adverse effects. The modeling conducted clearly shows that the GI solutions implemented facilitated a quantitative reduction and a qualitative improvement in stormwater, which is crucial from an environmental perspective and ensures a sustainable approach to stormwater management. Lowering the levels of stormwater pollution through the implementation of GI will consequently lower the environmental burden of pollutants in urban areas. Full article
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4 pages, 861 KiB  
Proceeding Paper
Interpretable Sewer Defect Detection with Large Multimodal Models
by Riccardo Taormina and Job Augustijn van der Werf
Eng. Proc. 2024, 69(1), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024069158 - 20 Sep 2024
Viewed by 716
Abstract
Large Multimodal Models are emerging general AI models capable of processing and analyzing diverse data streams, including text, imagery, and sequential data. This paper explores the possibility of exploiting multimodality to develop more interpretable AI-based predictive tools for the water sector, with a [...] Read more.
Large Multimodal Models are emerging general AI models capable of processing and analyzing diverse data streams, including text, imagery, and sequential data. This paper explores the possibility of exploiting multimodality to develop more interpretable AI-based predictive tools for the water sector, with a first application for sewer defect detection from CCTV imagery. To this aim, we test the zero-shot generalization performance of three generalist large language-vision models for binary sewer defect detection on a subset of the SewerML dataset. We compared the LMMs against a state-of-the-art unimodal Deep Learning approach which has been trained and validated on >1 million SewerML images. Unsurprisingly, the chosen benchmark showcases the best performances, with an overall F1 Score of 0.80. Nonetheless, OpenAI GPT4-V demonstrates relatively good performances with an overall F1 Score of 0.61, displaying equal or better results than the benchmark for some defect classes. Furthermore, GPT4-V often provides text descriptions aligned with the provided prediction, accurately describing the rationale behind a certain decision. Similarly, GPT4-V displays interesting emerging behaviors for trustworthiness, such as refusing to classify images that are too blurred or unclear. Despite the significantly lower performance from the open-source models CogVLM and LLaVA, some preliminary successes suggest good potential for enhancement through fine-tuning, agentic workflows, or retrieval-augmented generation. Full article
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4 pages, 981 KiB  
Proceeding Paper
Experimental Study on the Hydraulic Impact of Discrete Top Blockages in Gravity Sewers
by Jinzhe Gong, Joshua Sim, Benny Zuse Rousso, Lloyd H. C. Chua and Michael Thomas
Eng. Proc. 2024, 69(1), 87; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024069087 - 9 Sep 2024
Viewed by 360
Abstract
The current study presents experimental results on how discrete top blockages alter the upstream flow depth in a gravity sewer. A full-scale experimental circular open-channel system (DN150, 30 m length) was constructed to simulate a gravity sewer. Discrete top blockages with various heights [...] Read more.
The current study presents experimental results on how discrete top blockages alter the upstream flow depth in a gravity sewer. A full-scale experimental circular open-channel system (DN150, 30 m length) was constructed to simulate a gravity sewer. Discrete top blockages with various heights (80, 90, 100 mm) were tested with various flow rates and channel slopes. For various scenarios, the flow depths just upstream of the blockage were measured and analysed to reveal the impact of the blockages. The measured flow depths consistently exceeded those predicted by a reference formula from the literature, underscoring the difficulty in developing generalisable models. Full article
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4 pages, 437 KiB  
Proceeding Paper
Towards a Consistent Classification System for Condition Assessment of Drainage Pipes
by Zahra Tizmaghz, Jakobus E. van Zyl and Theunis F.P. Henning
Eng. Proc. 2024, 69(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2024069053 - 4 Sep 2024
Viewed by 323
Abstract
Municipal drainage systems consist of sewer and stormwater pipes. These systems represent a huge investment of public money and are thus important to monitor, model, and manage to ensure optimal operation and service life. Since pipe deterioration is driven by a finite number [...] Read more.
Municipal drainage systems consist of sewer and stormwater pipes. These systems represent a huge investment of public money and are thus important to monitor, model, and manage to ensure optimal operation and service life. Since pipe deterioration is driven by a finite number of root causes and processes, it should be possible to define a uniform classification system that can be applied internationally for different objectives, such as deterioration modelling and asset management. A literature review revealed that no uniform classification system currently exists and that a range of different definitions and criteria are used. This paper proposes a uniform classification system for drainage pipes consisting of three top-level categories (failures, defects, and factors) with subcategories based on functional or temporal considerations. Each category is unambiguously defined, and a classification flow diagram is presented. Adopting a uniform classification system will allow future research to be interpreted more consistently and allow the results of different studies to be compared rationally. Full article
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