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Keywords = snow entrainment

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22 pages, 5793 KB  
Article
Concrete Durability Performance in Aggressive Salt and Deicing Environments—Case Study of Select Pavement and Bridge Concrete Mixtures
by Olaniyi S. Arowojolu, Milena Rangelov, Somayeh Nassiri, Fouad Bayomy and Ahmed Ibrahim
Materials 2025, 18(6), 1266; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18061266 - 13 Mar 2025
Viewed by 957
Abstract
Transportation infrastructure such as concrete pavements, parapets, barriers, and bridge decks in cold regions are usually exposed to a heavy amount of deicing chemicals during the winter for ice and snow control. Various deicer salts can physically and chemically react with concrete and [...] Read more.
Transportation infrastructure such as concrete pavements, parapets, barriers, and bridge decks in cold regions are usually exposed to a heavy amount of deicing chemicals during the winter for ice and snow control. Various deicer salts can physically and chemically react with concrete and result in damage and deterioration. Currently, Idaho uses four different types of deicers during the winter: salt brine, mag bud converse, freeze guard plus, and mag chloride. The most often utilized substance is salt brine, which is created by dissolving rock salt at a concentration of 23.3%. Eight concrete mixtures for paving and structural purposes were made and put through a battery of durability tests. Following batching, measurements were made of the unit weight, entrained air, slump, and super air meter (SAM) fresh characteristics. Rapid freeze–thaw (F-T) cycle experiments, deicing scaling tests, and surface electrical resistivity testing were used to test and assess all mixes. Tests with mag bud converse, freeze guard plus mag chloride, and acid-soluble chloride were conducted following an extended period of soaking in salt brine. Two different structural mixtures were suggested as a result of the severe scaling observed in the structural mixtures lacking supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) and the moderate scaling observed in the other combinations. The correlated values of the SAM number with the spacing factor have been shown that mixture with no SCMs has a spacing factor of 0.24, which is higher than the recommended value of 0.2 and concentrations of acid soluble chloride over the threshold limit were discernible. In addition, the highest weight of calcium hydroxide using the TGA test was observed. For all examined mixes, the residual elastic moduli after 300 cycles varied between 76.0 and 83.3 percent of the initial moduli. Mixture M5 displayed the lowest percentage of initial E (76.0 percent), while mixtures M1 and M2 showed the highest percentage of residual E (83.3 and 80.0 percent, respectively) among the evaluated combinations. There were no significant variations in the percentage of maintained stiffness between the combinations. As a result, it was difficult to identify distinct patterns about how the air content or SAM number affected the mixture’s durability. Class C coal fly ash and silica fume were present in the suggested mixtures, which were assessed using the same testing matrix as the original mixtures. Because of their exceptional durability against large concentrations of chemical deicers, the main findings suggest altering the concrete compositions to incorporate SCMs in a ternary form. Full article
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11 pages, 1108 KB  
Article
Preparation and Taste Profiling of the Enzymatic Protein Hydrolysate from a by-Product of Red Snow Crab Processing as a Natural Seasoning Compound
by Ga-Yang Lee, Min-Jeong Jung, Jong-Woong Nam, Ah-Ram Han, Byoung-Mok Kim and Joon-Young Jun
Foods 2022, 11(23), 3911; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11233911 - 4 Dec 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2839
Abstract
The red snow crab (Chionoecetes japonicus) is the most industrially processed in the Republic of Korea, and the meat is very popular, owing to its savory taste and flavor. Its body meat production comprises a two-step separation to increase meat yield. [...] Read more.
The red snow crab (Chionoecetes japonicus) is the most industrially processed in the Republic of Korea, and the meat is very popular, owing to its savory taste and flavor. Its body meat production comprises a two-step separation to increase meat yield. However, during the secondary separation, broken shell debris is occasionally entrained in the meat products, which is a concern for manufacturers. As the residues from first separation contain 39.9% protein, it can be utilized as an enzymatic protein hydrolysate (FPH) rich in free amino acids (FAAs). A combination of flavourzyme and alcalase (1:1) superiorly hydrolyzed the protein of the residues, and the best hydrolysis condition was suggested at 60 °C for 15 h with fourfold water and 2% enzyme addition, achieving a 57.4% degree of hydrolysis. The EPH was mostly composed of FAAs containing most essential amino acids; however, bitter-tasting amino acids accounted for 46.4% of the FAAs. To reduce the bitter taste, different nonvolatile organic acids were considered as masking agents, and citric and malic acids were effective, though the umami taste is slightly decreased. In conclusion, the crab processing residues can be utilized as an FAA-based natural seasoning compound through enzymatic hydrolysis and organic acid treatment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Foods of Marine Origin)
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32 pages, 25845 KB  
Article
Reconstruction and Characterisation of Past and the Most Recent Slope Failure Events at the 2021 Rock-Ice Avalanche Site in Chamoli, Indian Himalaya
by Anshuman Bhardwaj and Lydia Sam
Remote Sens. 2022, 14(4), 949; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14040949 - 16 Feb 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7222
Abstract
Frequent ice avalanche events are being reported across the globe in recent years. On the 7 February 2021, a flash flood triggered by a rock-ice avalanche with an unusually long runout distance, caused significant damage of life and property in the Tapovan region [...] Read more.
Frequent ice avalanche events are being reported across the globe in recent years. On the 7 February 2021, a flash flood triggered by a rock-ice avalanche with an unusually long runout distance, caused significant damage of life and property in the Tapovan region of the Indian Himalaya. Using multi-temporal satellite datasets, digital terrain models (DTMs) and simulations, here we report the pre-event and during-event flow characteristics of two large-scale avalanches within a 5-year interval at the slope failure site. Prior to both the events, we observed short-term and long-term changes in surface velocity (SV) with maximum SVs increasing up to over 5 times the normal values. We further simulated the events to understand their mechanical characteristics leading to long runouts. In addition to its massive volume, the extraordinary magnitude of the 2021 event can partly be attributed to the possible remobilisation and entrainment of the colluvial deposits from previous ice and snow avalanches. The anomalous SVs should be explored further for their suitability as a possible remotely observable precursor of ice avalanches from hanging glaciers. This sequence of events highlights that there is a need to take into account the antecedent conditions, while making a holistic assessment of the hazard. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Remote Sensing in Glaciology)
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10 pages, 281 KB  
Perspective
Perspectives on Snow Avalanche Dynamics Research
by Kouichi Nishimura, Fabrizio Barpi and Dieter Issler
Geosciences 2021, 11(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11020057 - 29 Jan 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4259
Abstract
As an introduction for non-specialists to the Special Issue on snow avalanche dynamics, this paper first outlines how understanding the dynamics of snow avalanches can contribute to reducing risk for settlements and infrastructure. The main knowledge gaps in this field of research concern [...] Read more.
As an introduction for non-specialists to the Special Issue on snow avalanche dynamics, this paper first outlines how understanding the dynamics of snow avalanches can contribute to reducing risk for settlements and infrastructure. The main knowledge gaps in this field of research concern (i) the properties of the flow regimes and the transitions between them, and (ii) the dynamics of mass change due to erosion and deposition. These two aspects are intertwined and determine not only the reach of an avalanche, but also its velocity, course and impact pressure. Experimental studies described in this Special Issue comprise a wide range of scales from small rotating drums to real snow avalanches. In addition, several papers describe post-event field surveys of specific avalanches and analyze them using different methods and techniques, demonstrating how valuable qualitative insight can be gained in this way. The theoretical developments range from exploratory studies of fluid–particle interactions to a comprehensive review of half a century of avalanche flow modeling in Russia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
34 pages, 40607 KB  
Article
The 2017 Rigopiano Avalanche—Dynamics Inferred from Field Observations
by Dieter Issler
Geosciences 2020, 10(11), 466; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10110466 - 18 Nov 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4733
Abstract
Data on the disastrous snow avalanche that occurred on 18 January 2017 at the spa hotel Rigopiano, municipality of Farindola in the Abruzzo region of central Italy, are analyzed in different ways. The main results are the following. (i) The 2017 Rigopiano avalanche [...] Read more.
Data on the disastrous snow avalanche that occurred on 18 January 2017 at the spa hotel Rigopiano, municipality of Farindola in the Abruzzo region of central Italy, are analyzed in different ways. The main results are the following. (i) The 2017 Rigopiano avalanche went beyond the run-out point predicted by the topographic-statistical α-β model with standard Norwegian calibration, while avalanches in neighboring paths appear to have run no farther than the β-point of their respective paths during the same period. (ii) The curvature and super-elevation of the trimline between 1500 and 1300 m a.s.l. indicate that the velocity of the front was around 40 m s1. In contrast, the tail velocity of the avalanche can hardly have exceeded 25 m s1 in the same segment. (iii) The deposits observed along all of the lower track and in the run-out zone suggest that the avalanche eroded essentially the entire snow cover, but fully entrained only a moderate amount of snow (and debris). The entrainment appears to have had a considerable decelerating effect on the flow front. (iv) Estimates of the degree to which different parts of the building were damaged is combined with information about the location of the persons in the building and their fates. This allows to refine a preliminary vulnerability curve for persons in buildings obtained from the 2015 Longyearbyen avalanche, Svalbard. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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26 pages, 21469 KB  
Article
The Avalanche of Les Fonts d’Arinsal (Andorra): An Example of a Pure Powder, Dry Snow Avalanche
by Glòria Furdada, Aina Margalef, Laura Trapero, Marc Pons, Francesc Areny, Margaret Baró, Albert Reyes and Marta Guinau
Geosciences 2020, 10(4), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10040126 - 31 Mar 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 9088
Abstract
On 8th February 1996, in the north-western part of Andorra in the Pyrenees, the Les Fonts d’Arinsal (LFd’A) pure powder avalanche was triggered, descending some 1200 m to the bottom of the Arinsal valley and continuing up the opposite slope for about 200 [...] Read more.
On 8th February 1996, in the north-western part of Andorra in the Pyrenees, the Les Fonts d’Arinsal (LFd’A) pure powder avalanche was triggered, descending some 1200 m to the bottom of the Arinsal valley and continuing up the opposite slope for about 200 m. This size 4–5 avalanche reached velocities of up to 80 ms−1, devastated 18 ha of forest, involved a minimum volume of up to 1.8 × 106 m−3 and caused major damage to eight buildings. Fortunately, no one was injured thanks to an evacuation, but 322 people lost their properties. This study describes the physical characteristics of the LFd’A avalanche path and provides data on earlier avalanches, the meteorological synoptic situation and snowpack conditions that generated the avalanche episode, the warning and preventive actions carried out, the effects and evidence of the large avalanche, and the defence system implemented afterwards. A discussion of the avalanche dynamics based on observations and damage, including the role of snow entrainment, the total lack of characteristic dense flow deposits, as well as the evidence of a two-phase flow (fluidisation and suspension), is presented. This case study is an example of a paradigmatic large, pure powder, dry-snow avalanche, which will be useful for model calibration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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21 pages, 938 KB  
Comment
Comments on “On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants” by S. S. Grigorian and A. V. Ostroumov
by Dieter Issler
Geosciences 2020, 10(3), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10030096 - 2 Mar 2020
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3357
Abstract
This note first summarizes the history of the manuscript “On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants” by Grigorian and Ostroumov—published in this Special Issue—since the early 1990s and explains the guiding principles in editing it for publication. The changes [...] Read more.
This note first summarizes the history of the manuscript “On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants” by Grigorian and Ostroumov—published in this Special Issue—since the early 1990s and explains the guiding principles in editing it for publication. The changes are then detailed and some explanatory notes given for the benefit of readers who are not familiar with the early Russian work on snow avalanche dynamics. Finally, the editor’s personal views as to why he still considers this paper of relevance for avalanche dynamics research today are presented in brief essays on key aspects of the paper, namely the role of simple and complex models in avalanche research and mitigation work, the status and possible applications of Grigorian’s stress-limited friction law, and non-monotonicity of the dynamics of the Grigorian–Ostroumov model in the friction coefficient. A comparison of the erosion model proposed by those authors with two other models suggests to enhance it with an additional equation for the balance of tangential momentum across the shock front. A preliminary analysis indicates that continuous scouring entrainment is possible only in a restricted parameter range and that there is a second erosion regime with delayed entrainment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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42 pages, 3876 KB  
Review
A Review of Russian Snow Avalanche Models—From Analytical Solutions to Novel 3D Models
by Margarita Eglit, Alexander Yakubenko and Julia Zayko
Geosciences 2020, 10(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10020077 - 20 Feb 2020
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5362
Abstract
The article is a review of mathematical models of snow avalanches that have been proposed since the middle of the 20th century and are still in use. The main attention is paid to the work of researchers from the Soviet Union and Russia, [...] Read more.
The article is a review of mathematical models of snow avalanches that have been proposed since the middle of the 20th century and are still in use. The main attention is paid to the work of researchers from the Soviet Union and Russia, since many of their works were published only in Russian and are not widely available. Mathematical models of various levels of complexity for avalanches of various types—from dense to powder-snow avalanches—are discussed. Analytical solutions including formulas for the avalanche front speed are described. The results of simulations of the movement of avalanches are given that were used to create avalanche hazard maps. The last part of the article is devoted to constructing models of a new type, in which avalanches are considered as laminar or turbulent flows of non-Newtonian fluids, using the full (not depth-averaged) equations of continuum mechanics. The results of a numerical study of the effect of non-Newtonian rheology and mass entrainment on the avalanche dynamics are presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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20 pages, 1312 KB  
Article
On a Continuum Model for Avalanche Flow and Its Simplified Variants
by Samvel S. Grigorian and Alexander V. Ostroumov
Geosciences 2020, 10(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10010035 - 19 Jan 2020
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3543
Abstract
Mathematical models of different degrees of complexity, describing the motion of a snow avalanche along a path with given center line and spatially varying width, are formulated and compared. The most complete model integrates the balance equations for mass and momentum over the [...] Read more.
Mathematical models of different degrees of complexity, describing the motion of a snow avalanche along a path with given center line and spatially varying width, are formulated and compared. The most complete model integrates the balance equations for mass and momentum over the cross-section and achieves closure through an entrainment function based on shock theory and a modified Voellmy bed friction law where the Coulombic contribution to the bed shear stress is limited by the shear strength of the snow cover. A simplified model results from integrating these balance equations over the (time-dependent) length of the flow and postulating weak similarity of the evolving avalanche shape. On path segments of constant inclination, it can be solved for the flow depth and speed of the front in closed form in terms of the imaginary error function. Finally, the very simplest model assumes constant flow height and length. On an inclined plane, the evolution of flow depth and velocity predicted by the simplified model are close to those from the full model without entrainment and with corresponding parameters, but the simplest model with constant flow depth predicts much higher velocity values. If the friction coefficient is varied in the full model with entrainment, there can be non-monotonous behavior due to the non-linear interplay between entrainment and the limitation on the Coulomb friction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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20 pages, 22786 KB  
Article
Constraints on Entrainment and Deposition Models in Avalanche Simulations from High-Resolution Radar Data
by Matthias Rauter and Anselm Köhler
Geosciences 2020, 10(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10010009 - 25 Dec 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5639
Abstract
Depth-integrated simulations of snow avalanches have become a central part of risk analysis and mitigation. However, the common practice of applying different model parameters to mimic different avalanches is unsatisfying. In here, we analyse this issue in terms of two differently sized avalanches [...] Read more.
Depth-integrated simulations of snow avalanches have become a central part of risk analysis and mitigation. However, the common practice of applying different model parameters to mimic different avalanches is unsatisfying. In here, we analyse this issue in terms of two differently sized avalanches from the full-scale avalanche test-site Vallée de la Sionne, Switzerland. We perform depth-integrated simulations with the toolkit OpenFOAM, simulating both events with the same set of model parameters. Simulation results are validated with high-resolution position data from the GEODAR radar. Rather than conducting extensive post-processing to match radar data to the output of the simulations, we generate synthetic flow signatures inside the flow model. The synthetic radar data can be directly compared with the GEODAR measurements. The comparison reveals weaknesses of the model, generally at the tail and specifically by overestimating the runout of the smaller event. Both issues are addressed by explicitly considering deposition processes in the depth-integrated model. The new deposition model significantly improves the simulation of the small avalanche, making it starve in the steep middle part of the slope. Furthermore, the deposition model enables more accurate simulations of deposition patterns and volumes and the simulation of avalanche series that are influenced by previous deposits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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31 pages, 5676 KB  
Article
Inferences on Mixed Snow Avalanches from Field Observations
by Dieter Issler, Peter Gauer, Mark Schaer and Stefan Keller
Geosciences 2020, 10(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences10010002 - 20 Dec 2019
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4684
Abstract
Observations of the deposits, flow marks, and damages of three mixed-snow avalanches of widely different size were analyzed with regard to flow regimes, velocities, pressures, densities, flow depths, erosion modes, and mass balance. Three deposit types of different density and granulometry could be [...] Read more.
Observations of the deposits, flow marks, and damages of three mixed-snow avalanches of widely different size were analyzed with regard to flow regimes, velocities, pressures, densities, flow depths, erosion modes, and mass balance. Three deposit types of different density and granulometry could be clearly discerned in these avalanches. They are attributed to dense, fluidized, and suspension flow regimes, respectively. Combining observations, we estimated the density in the fluidized layer as 35–100 kg m 3 , in good agreement with inferences from pressure measurements. Upper bounds for the suspension layer density, arising from the run-up height, velocity, and damage pattern, are about 5 kg m 3 at the valley bottom. An approximate momentum balance of the dense layer suggests that the snow cover was eroded to considerable depth, but only partly entrained into the flow proper. The suspension layer had largely lost its erosive power at the point where it separated from the denser parts of the avalanche. Our estimates shed doubt on collisions between snow particles and aerodynamic forces at the head of the avalanche as sole mechanisms for creating and upholding the fluidized layer. We conjecture that the drag from air escaping from the snow cover as it is being compressed by the overriding avalanche could supply the missing lift force. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Avalanche Dynamics)
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13 pages, 64372 KB  
Communication
Snow Level Characteristics and Impacts of a Spring Typhoon-Originating Atmospheric River in the Sierra Nevada, USA
by Benjamin J. Hatchett
Atmosphere 2018, 9(6), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos9060233 - 15 Jun 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6479
Abstract
On 5–7 April 2018, a landfalling atmospheric river resulted in widespread heavy precipitation in the Sierra Nevada of California and Nevada. Observed snow levels during this event were among the highest snow levels recorded since observations began in 2002 and exceeded 2.75 km [...] Read more.
On 5–7 April 2018, a landfalling atmospheric river resulted in widespread heavy precipitation in the Sierra Nevada of California and Nevada. Observed snow levels during this event were among the highest snow levels recorded since observations began in 2002 and exceeded 2.75 km for 31 h in the northern Sierra Nevada and 3.75 km for 12 h in the southern Sierra Nevada. The anomalously high snow levels and over 80 mm of precipitation caused flooding, debris flows, and wet snow avalanches in the upper elevations of the Sierra Nevada. The origin of this atmospheric river was super typhoon Jelawat, whose moisture remnants were entrained and maintained by an extratropical cyclone in the northeast Pacific. This event was notable due to its April occurrence, as six other typhoon remnants that caused heavy precipitation with high snow levels (mean = 2.92 km) in the northern Sierra Nevada all occurred during October. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tropical Cyclones and Their Impacts)
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20 pages, 2002 KB  
Article
Seasonal Accumulation and Depletion of Local Sediment Stores of Four Headwater Catchments
by Sarah E. Martin, Martha H. Conklin and Roger C. Bales
Water 2014, 6(7), 2144-2163; https://doi.org/10.3390/w6072144 - 23 Jul 2014
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 9300
Abstract
Seasonal turbidity patterns and event-level hysteresis analysis of turbidity verses discharge in four 1 km2 headwater catchments in California’s Sierra Nevada indicate localized in-channel sediment sources and seasonal accumulation-depletion patterns of stream sediments. Turbidity signals were analyzed for three years in order [...] Read more.
Seasonal turbidity patterns and event-level hysteresis analysis of turbidity verses discharge in four 1 km2 headwater catchments in California’s Sierra Nevada indicate localized in-channel sediment sources and seasonal accumulation-depletion patterns of stream sediments. Turbidity signals were analyzed for three years in order to look at the relationships between seasonal turbidity trends, event turbidity patterns, and precipitation type to stream sediment production and transport. Seasonal patterns showed more turbidity events associated with fall and early to mid- winter events than with peak snow-melt. No significant turbidity patterns emerged for periods of snow melt vs. rain. Single event hysteresis loops showed clockwise patterns were dominant suggesting local sediment sources. In successive discharge events, the largest turbidity spike was often associated with the first but not necessarily the largest discharge event-indicating seasonal depletion of local sediment stores. In multi-peaked discharge events, hysteresis loops shifted from clockwise to linear or random patterns suggesting that localized sediment stores are being used up and sufficient flow energy must be reached to start entraining the more consolidated bank/bed sediment or that dominant sediment sources may be shifting to less localized areas such as hill slopes. A conceptual model with phases of accumulation and transport is proposed. Full article
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