Dairy, Volume 3, Issue 1 (March 2022) – 16 articles

As livestock production systems have changed to intensive commercial structures to meet the increasing demand for animal-based products, there has been an increase in food production diseases, subsequently resulting in animal welfare issues. After mastitis and infertility, lameness is one of the three major issues affecting dairy cattle globally, resulting in reduced productivity, economic losses, and animal welfare problems. Lameness is associated with reduced milk yield, lack of weight gain, poor fertility, and frequently, animal culling. Environmental (temperature, humidity) and animal risk factors contribute to disease severity, making this multifaceted disease difficult to eradicate and control. As such, prevalence rates of lameness in dairy herds ranges from 17% to 35% globally. Clinical lameness is often treated with antibiotic therapy, which is undesirable in food-producing animals, as outlined in the One Health and the European Farm to Fork food sustainability goals. Lameness is not a single disease in dairy cows but is the manifestation a range of issues, making lameness control one of the greatest challenges in dairy farming. Lameness prevention, therefore, must be a key focus of farm management and sustainable food production. There is an urgent need to establish farm-level aetiology of disease, promote the recognition of lameness, and implement effective control measures to lower incidence and transmission of disease within herds. Full article

Caprine arthritis encephalitis (CAE) and caseous lymphadenitis (CLA) are two infectious diseases affecting goat welfare and production throughout the world. There are no current data regarding their prevalence in Sweden, and the aim of this pilot study was therefore to estimate the occurrence in Swedish milk-producing goats, but also to assess the agreement between milk and sera as sample material for diagnosis and to investigate the association between the somatic cell count (SCC) in bulk milk and the occurrence of CAE and CLA. Serum, individual milk, and bulk-tank milk samples were collected from 214 dairy goats in 10 herds. All samples were analysed by ELISA to detect antibodies for CAE and CLA, and 14.6% of the goats were seropositive for CAE, whereas 19.3% of the goats were seropositive for CLA. The agreement between individual milk and serum samples was over 90% for both diseases and individual milk samples can therefore be considered as an alternative material for analysis in a future eradication programme. Based on the limited number of samples, there was also a significant correlation between bulk-milk test results and within-herd seroprevalence for both CAE and CLA. The SCC in bulk-milk samples was measured using a DeLaval cell counter. The medium SCC was 639,000 cells/mL and no association between SCC and CAE or CLA could be found. The results indicate that CAE and CLA are two common diseases in Swedish goat herds, but further studies based on a larger number of herds are needed to draw conclusions about the national prevalence. The results also indicate that milk can be used as a more cost-effective sampling media for diagnosing CAE and CLA compared to serology, which is the standard procedure today. Hopefully, the results can support the establishment of a successful programme to control the diseases, with the ambition to eradicate CAE and CLA in Sweden. Full article

In this case study, we compared the gross composition and fatty acid (FA) composition of milk from cows milked once a day (OAD) and twice a day (TAD) at different stages of lactation in real farm conditions with no control on feed. Seventy-two cows from a OAD milking herd and 181 cows from a TAD milking herd were sampled in early, mid and late lactation. Calibration equations were developed to enable the prediction of proportions of individual FAs using mid-infrared (MIR) spectroscopy. Cows milked OAD produced 25% lower daily milk yield (MY) compared to cows milked TAD. Percentages of fat and protein were 21% and 9% higher in cows milked OAD compared to cows milked TAD, respectively. The proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) (molecules with unbranched hydrocarbon chains and all single bonds) was significantly lower, while the proportions of de novo synthesised FAs from C8:0 to C14:0 were significantly higher, in cows milked OAD compared to cows milked TAD. OAD milking improved the energy balance of cows, which led to higher proportions of de novo synthesised FAs and lower proportions of long-chain fatty acids (16:0 and above). The proportion of SFA was significantly higher in mid lactation (ML) compared to early lactation (EL) and late lactation (LL) in cows milked OAD and TAD. In EL, the proportions of C4:0 to C12:0 FAs in cows milked OAD were significantly higher compared to the cows milked TAD due to the improved energy status of cows milked OAD. Understanding the proportions of individual FAs in cows milked OAD and TAD will enable further studies on milk fat characteristics and on butter hardness and coagulation properties of milk. Full article

Adequate supply of amino acids can improve the efficiency of nitrogen use. Casein is the predominant milk protein, and its supplementation can improve milk protein synthesis and nitrogen efficiency. We evaluated the effects of post-ruminal supplementation of casein on milk yield and composition and whole-body protein deposition. Two ruminally cannulated Holstein dairy cows (599 kg) were used in a switch-back design, and treatments were an abomasal infusion of 0 or 400 g/day casein. Cows were fed a diet consisting of corn silage, alfalfa hay, wet corn gluten feed, whole cottonseed, and grain mix, and they received 320 g/day dextrose via abomasal infusion to increase energy:metabolizable protein. The experiment used three 8-day periods. Milk, urine, and feces samples were collected to evaluate milk production, milk composition, and nitrogen retention. Abomasal casein infusion increased (p < 0.01) milk protein percentage and milk urea nitrogen. Nitrogen retention (p = 0.03) and urinary N excretion (p < 0.001) were increased and fecal N excretion (p < 0.001) was decreased by casein infusion. Results suggest casein stimulated protein deposition and altered nitrogen use in lactating dairy cattle. Adaptation periods of 4 days were appropriate for evaluating responses to casein supplementation. Our data provide elements that can aid the design of future experiments. Full article

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a chronic condition that affects 11.2% of the world’s population. The management of gut microbiota using probiotic and synbiotic agents might be a valid alternative to assist in the treatment of IBS. The focus of this study was to evaluate the effects of prebiotic and synbiotic compounds carried by different foods on major symptoms of IBS through a systematic literature review. MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and LILACS were accessed during July 2021. The studies included in this review were the ones that tested volunteers older than 16 years of age and were conducted using a randomized, controlled clinical trial. The risk of bias was assessed by using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials (RoB2). Furthermore, the data found were qualitatively evaluated due to the studies’ differences. Two papers were able to fit the criteria, with a total sample size of 280 participants. No datum was found regarding the use of prebiotics in the treatment of IBS. Synbiotic agents, however, had a positive effect on gastrointestinal symptoms and the participants’ overall bowel satisfaction; however, it was not possible to reach a consensus on which effects. Further studies regarding the use of synbiotics and prebiotics must be carried out to determine which effects are the most significant in the treatment of IBS. Full article

Enteritis is the major cause of mortality in neonatal calves. Diagnostic work to detect the pathogens involved and identification of risk factors for such infections are imperative to improve calf health. Bovine norovirus (BNoV) and nebovirus prevalence was investigated using RT-PCR in 50 dairy herds in five geographic regions of Sweden. BNoV and nebovirus were found to be common infections in young dairy calves. BNoV was detected in 20% of 250 calves in 48% of the herds. Nebovirus was detected in 5% of the calves in 16% of the herds. Both infections were present in three herds (6%). BNoV-infected calves were younger (median age 7 days) than nebovirus-infected calves (median age 21 days). These infections were not detected in adult cows and young stock over 6 months of age tested in selected herds. Risk factors identified for BNoV infection were a high number of preweaned calves present at the time of sampling, colostrum uptake by suckling the dam only, calf kept in a single pen, and geographic location of herd, while no risk factors for nebovirus infection were identified in the multivariable analysis. Univariable analysis suggested risk factors for nebovirus infection to be geographic location and early separation from the dam. Full article

Milk is seen as a chief source of protein and other biologically available nutrients for human beings. Pakistan, the fourth largest milk-producing country, is badly affected by the contagious transboundary apthoviral disease of ungulate animals; the foot and mouth disease (FMD) virus. FMD is endemic in Pakistan and has caused significant economic loss to the dairy industry in the form of a profound decrease in milk production and increased morbidity and deaths of dairy animals. Inclusively, the case fatality ratio of FMD was 15.11%. Of the seven FMDV serotypes, (O, A, C, Asia 1, SAT 1, SAT 2, and SAT 3), three serotypes (O, A, and Asia-1) are endemic in Pakistan. Rapid and highly sensitive diagnostic tools are required for efficient control of this disease. Presently, FMD in the laboratory is diagnosed via ELISA and molecular approaches, i.e., RT-PCR. Serotype-specific RT-PCR analysis not only confirms ELISA serotyping results but can also be used for the screening of ELISA negative samples. Genotypically, FMDV serotype O has a topotype (Middle East–South Asia (ME–SA) and lineage PanAsia-2) that is reported frequently from different areas of Pakistan. Confirmed cases of serotype A and Asia-1 are also reported. The information gathered can be used for understanding the molecular epidemiology of FMD in Pakistan. Further studies on the molecular dynamics of FMD could be useful for ensuring the timely diagnosis of this deadly pathogen, which would ultimately be beneficial for the mass vaccination programs of FMD in Pakistan. Full article

Methanogenesis in ruminants contributes to both greenhouse gas emissions and feed energy losses whereby the latter becomes specifically important in energy-deficient periparturient cows. It was hypothesized that increased concentrate feed proportions (CFP) and feeding with the methane inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (3-NOP), as well as their potential synergism, improve the energy status of peripartal cows. Periparturient dairy cows were fed low or high dietary CFP either tested without or combined with 3-NOP. The GreenFeed system was used to calculate the metabolic respiration quotient (RQ_metabolic) and tissue energy retention (ER_tissue) by methods of indirect calorimetry. The calorimetrically estimated ER_tissue coincided with a conventionally calculated energy balance except for the antepartal period. Neither CFP nor 3-NOP affected the ultrasonographically assessed lipomobilization in adipose depots. In the group fed 3-NOP and a high concentrate feed proportion, the RQ_metabolic significantly rose over the course of the experiment and the ER_tissue was also increased. Serum non-esterified fatty acid concentrations were lower in the 3-NOP groups albeit ß-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) remained unaffected. Higher CFP reduced BHB and increased blood glucose levels. In conclusion, 3-NOP and high CFP improved the energy budget of the cows in an interactive manner, which was, however, not apparent in all of the examined parameters. The application of the GreenFeed system for indirect calorimetry is a promising approach, which needs further validation in the future. Full article

Dairy heifers in New Zealand are typically naturally mated by Jersey bulls to produce low-value non-replacement offspring sold for slaughter a few days after birth. Producing a beef-sired calf from a dairy heifer will increase the value of these calves for beef production but may compromise the subsequent career of the animals, in terms of milk production, rebreeding success, health, or survival of the heifer. This study aimed to determine the impact of low birthweight Angus and Hereford bulls versus breed-average Jersey bulls on the reproduction and production traits of first-calving dairy heifers. The experiment included 304 heifer-calf pairs over 2 years. Calves sired by Angus and Hereford bulls were 3.5–4.4 kg and 3.7–6.8 kg heavier than Jersey-sired calves and had a 4.2% and 9.3% incidence of assistance at birth for normally presented calves over the 2 years, respectively. No normally presented Jersey-sired calves were assisted. There was no difference in body condition score, pre-calving live weight, milk production, pregnancy rate, inter-calving interval, re-calving day, and 21-day re-calving rate of heifers mated to the different breeds of bulls. The results indicate that the Angus and Hereford bulls with low birthweight and high direct calving ease estimated breeding values (EBV) can be used to produce calves of greater value than Jersey-sired calves without impacting dairy heifer production. However, a small increase in assistance at calving could be expected. Full article

In the case of camels, there is little data in the literature on the relationship between body building features and the evaluation of milk yield. In the last decade, a rising interest in camel milk has been observed due to its nutritional and health-promoting properties, resulting in a growing market demand. Despite the remarkable importance of camels, very little improvement in camel breeding and selection for dairy purposes has been achieved. The current study aimed to provide a practical approach to the evaluation of dairy dromedaries based on test day milk and morphometric records. A total of 62 Sindi dairy camels were evaluated and 4176 daily milk records were registered in February, March, April, and May 2021. She-camels were milked twice per day (at morning and evening) by hand before calf sucking. The farming system was intensive with two times feeding. Three measurements had the highest scores in assessing: udder, teats distance and placement, and teats size, which included 45 out of 100 scores. Test day milk records were analysed using a simple repeatability model with two random effects. The range of daily milk yields was estimated between 0.1 to 8.70 kg. The mean of body scores was 77.19 (CI = 74.19–80.19). Daily milk yields moderately correlated with body score (r = +0.27). Additionally, udder circumference and abdomen girth were correlated to milk production. Using test day milk records in breeding programs can be appropriate for the selection and replacement of she-camels, but due to difficulties in accessing these data, using morphometric data is a good criterion for the evaluation of dromedaries in extensive systems. Full article

Subclinical mastitis (SCM) is a very common disease of dairy cows. Currently, somatic cell count (SCC) is used for SCM diagnoses. There are no prognostic tests to detect which cows may develop SCM during the dry-off period. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to identify metabolic alterations in the serum of pre-SCM cows during the dry-off period, at −8 and −4 weeks before calving, through a targeted mass spectrometry (MS) assay. Fifteen cows, free of any disease, and 10 cows affected only by SCM postpartum served as controls (CON) and the SCM group, respectively. Results showed 59 and 47 metabolites that differentiated (p ≤ 0.05) CON and pre-SCM cows at –8 and −4 weeks prior to the expected date of parturition, respectively. Regression analysis indicated that a panel of four serum metabolites (AUC = 0.92, p < 0.001) at −8 weeks and another four metabolites (AUC = 0.92, p < 0.01) at −4 weeks prior to parturition might serve as predictive biomarkers for SCM. Early identification of susceptible cows can enable development of better preventive measurements ahead of disease occurrence. Full article

Milk contains all nutrients needed for development of calves. One important group of components responsible for this are the milk proteins. Variation due to feed or animal health, has been studied for the most abundant milk proteins. The aim of this study was to determine the variation between and within cows for their milk serum proteome. Sample Set 1 was collected from Holstein Friesian (HF) cows between November 2011 and March 2012 and prepared using filter aided sample preparation (FASP) followed by LC-MS/MS for protein identification and quantification. The results showed that the milk serum proteome was very constant in mid lactation (four cows at five time points, p > 0.05) between 3 and 6 months in lactation. Sample Set 2 was collected from HF cows in Dec 2012 and analyzed using FASP and dimethyl labeling followed by LC-MS/MS. Significant variation in the milk serum proteome (p < 0.05) between 17 individual cows was found in Sample Set 2. The most variable proteins were immune-related proteins, which may reflect the health status of the individual cow. On the other hand, proteins related to nutrient synthesis and transport were relatively constant, indicating the importance of milk in providing a stable supply of nutrients to the neonate. In conclusion, the milk serum proteome was stable over mid lactation, but differed significantly between individuals, especially in immune-related proteins. Full article

Milking machine design and performance are directly related to the milkability of sheep and goats, with the aim of milking quickly, completely and gently. This leads to an increase in the milk yield with improved quality, and the maintenance of healthy udders. The aim of this study was to carry out laboratory tests to determine the optimal level of vacuum, pulsation rate and pulsation ratio of new milking machines in high and low milk lines for sheep and goats. This study was conducted at the Department of Research and Development, Siliconform, Germany. For this purpose, different levels of vacuum (32, 34, 36, 38 and 40 kPa), milk jet (2, 2.5, 3 and 4 mm), milk line (high line and low line) and pulsation ratio (50:50 and 60:40) were used. First minute water flow (1st WF/kg) was used as an indicator for assessing the best combination in the milking machine. In addition, the cyclic vacuum fluctuation was measured in the inner chamber of the teat cup during the 1st WF/kg with the aid of a Vacuscope device. Statistical analysis was conducted using the mixed procedure in SAS. Our results show that the vacuum level, the milk jet and the pulsation ratio had a significant influence (p < 0.05) on the 1st WF/kg in the two milking machines for goats and sheep. In conclusion, the ideal conditions for milking goats with air inlet teat cups in the milking machine are a vacuum level of 36–38 kPa (low line) and 38–40 kPa (high line), a pulsation rate of 90 cycles/min and a pulsation ratio of 60:40, while the ideal conditions in the sheep milking machines are a vacuum level of 35–36 kPa (low line) and 36–38 kPa (high line), a pulsation rate of 120 cycles/min and a pulsation ratio of 60:40 or 50:50. Full article

Although the effects of human–dairy cattle interaction have been extensively examined, data concerning small ruminants are scarce. The present review article aims at highlighting the effects of management practices on the productivity, physiology and behaviour of dairy animals. In general, aversive handling is associated with a milk yield reduction and welfare impairment. Precision livestock farming systems have therefore been applied and have rapidly changed the management process with the introduction of technological and computer innovations that contribute to the minimization of animal disturbances, the promotion of good practices and the maintenance of cattle’s welfare status and milk production and farms’ sustainability and competitiveness at high levels. However, although dairy farmers acknowledge the advantages deriving from the application of precision livestock farming advancements, a reluctance concerning their regular application to small ruminants is observed, due to economic and cultural constraints and poor technological infrastructures. As a result, targeted intervention training programmes are also necessary in order to improve the efficacy and efficiency of handling, especially of small ruminants. Full article

Welfare assessment of dairy calves is commonly conducted through the observation of their behavior and the analysis of physiological parameters. Despite the large number of studies on this topic, there is a lack of research on the possible correlation between the physiological parameters and behavior at basal level in dairy calves. For this reason, the present study aimed to investigate the possible correlations between serum cortisol, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (N/L) and locomotor play behavior in 21 Friesian dairy calves within their first month of life. Every week, an arena test after blood collection was performed. A significant positive correlation between serum cortisol levels and N/L (r_rm = 0.381; 95% CI = 0.083, 0.617; p = 0.012) and a negative correlation between time spent running and N/L (r_rm = −0.351; 95% CI = −0.575, −0.077; p = 0.012) were found. On the contrary, no significant correlation between time spent running and cortisol levels was detected. Cortisol levels and N/L were higher in the newborn and had a constant decrease until reaching a stable value after the 24th day of life. These findings suggest a better predictivity of N/L, compared to serum cortisol, on locomotor play behavior. Full article