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A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 May 2021) | Viewed by 67126

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Miguel-Ángel Muñoz-García

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Guest Editor

Department of Agricultural Engineering and Forestry, Campus Ciudad Universitaria, Technical University of Madrid (UPM), 28040 Madrid, Spain
Interests: photovoltaics; sensors; agrivoltaics; greenhouses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Luis Hernández-Callejo

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Guest Editor

Department of Agricultural and Forestry Engineering, University of Valladolid, Campus Duques de Soria, 42004 Soria, Spain
Interests: energy; engineering; computer science; photovoltaic systems; microgrids; distributed generation; smart metering
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

According to the United Nations sustainable objectives, agriculture is the single largest employer in the world, sustaining the livelihoods of 40 percent of the world’s population, many of whom continue to live in poverty. Agriculture uses a large amount of water, which in turn requires a lot of energy to be transformed to the point where it can actually be used. Such energy is usually electric, which implies a great economic cost and also greenhouse gas emissions, since it is usually of nonrenewable origin.

However, photovoltaic energy is a great opportunity to reduce both costs and emissions, even more so with the drop in prices that has occurred in recent years, reaching prices per watt of less than €0.5. In this new situation, numerous opportunities for the use of photovoltaic energy appear in agricultural applications.

This Special Issue is focused on applications, uses, and research related to photovoltaic solar energy and agriculture, both in energy generation in rural areas for agricultural uses, and in its use, problems, and opportunities. Novel works related to new discoveries to known problems will be accepted, as well as analyses of opportunities and improvements in photovoltaic systems and elements used for agriculture.

Dr. Miguel-Ángel Muñoz-García
Dr. Luis Hernández Callejo
Guest Editors

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Keywords

photovoltaics
agrivoltaics
solar energy
solar pumping
soiling
remote solar sensors
solar greenhouses
Electrification in Agriculture
Rural electrification

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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5 pages, 211 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture

by Miguel A. Muñoz-García and Luis Hernández-Callejo

Agronomy 2022, 12(1), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12010044 - 26 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2742

Abstract

The editorial introduces a Special Issue entitled “Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture” [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

22 pages, 4458 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Economic Feasibility of Agrivoltaic Systems in Food-Energy Nexus Context: Modelling and a Case Study in Niger

by Srijana Neupane Bhandari, Sabine Schlüter, Wilhelm Kuckshinrichs, Holger Schlör, Rabani Adamou and Ramchandra Bhandari

Agronomy 2021, 11(10), 1906; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11101906 - 23 Sep 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5972

Abstract

In the literature, many studies outline the advantages of agrivoltaic (APV) systems from different viewpoints: optimized land use, productivity gain in both the energy and water sector, economic benefits, etc. A holistic analysis of an APV system is needed to understand its full advantages. For this purpose, a case study farm size of 0.15 ha has been chosen as a reference farm at a village in Niger, West Africa. Altogether four farming cases are considered. They are traditional rain-fed, irrigated with diesel-powered pumps, irrigated with solar pumps, and the APV system. The APV system is further analyzed under two scenarios: benefits to investors and combined benefits to investors and farmers. An economic feasibility analysis model is developed. Different economic indicators are used to present the results: gross margin, farm profit, benefit-cost ratio, and net present value (NPV). All the economic indicators obtained for the solar-powered irrigation system were positive, whereas all those for the diesel-powered system were negative. Additionally, the diesel system will emit annually about 4005 kg CO₂ to irrigate the chosen reference farm. The land equivalent ratio (LER) was obtained at 1.33 and 1.13 for two cases of shading-induced yield loss excluded and included, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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20 pages, 6732 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Semi-Transparent Organic Photovoltaics Applied as Greenhouse Shade for Spring and Summer Tomato Production in Arid Climate

by Rebekah Waller, Murat Kacira, Esther Magadley, Meir Teitel and Ibrahim Yehia

Agronomy 2021, 11(6), 1152; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11061152 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3989

Abstract

Recognizing the growing interest in the application of organic photovoltaics (OPVs) with greenhouse crop production systems, in this study we used flexible, roll-to-roll printed, semi-transparent OPV arrays as a roof shade for a greenhouse hydroponic tomato production system during a spring and summer production season in the arid southwestern U.S. The wavelength-selective OPV arrays were installed in a contiguous area on a section of the greenhouse roof, decreasing the transmittance of all solar radiation wavelengths and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) wavelengths (400–700 nm) to the OPV-shaded area by approximately 40% and 37%, respectively. Microclimate conditions and tomato crop growth and yield parameters were measured in both the OPV-shaded (‘OPV’) and non-OPV-shaded (‘Control’) sections of the greenhouse. The OPV shade stabilized the canopy temperature during midday periods with the highest solar radiation intensities, performing the function of a conventional shading method. Although delayed fruit development and ripening in the OPV section resulted in lower total yields compared to the Control section (24.6 kg m⁻² and 27.7 kg m⁻², respectively), after the fourth (of 10 total) harvests, the average weekly yield, fruit number, and fruit mass were not significantly different between the treatment (OPV-shaded) and control group. Light use efficiency (LUE), defined as the ratio of total fruit yield to accumulated PAR received by the plant canopy, was nearly twice as high as the Control section, with 21.4 g of fruit per mole of PAR for plants in the OPV-covered section compared to 10.1 g in the Control section. Overall, this study demonstrated that the use of semi-transparent OPVs as a seasonal shade element for greenhouse production in a high-light region is feasible. However, a higher transmission of PAR and greater OPV device efficiency and durability could make OPV shades more economically viable, providing a desirable solution for co-located greenhouse crop production and renewable energy generation in hot and high-light intensity regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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18 pages, 6095 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of the Viability of a Photovoltaic Greenhouse with Semi-Transparent Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Glass

by José-Ramón Aira, Sara Gallardo-Saavedra, Marcia Eugenio-Gozalbo, Víctor Alonso-Gómez, Miguel-Ángel Muñoz-García and Luis Hernández-Callejo

Agronomy 2021, 11(6), 1097; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11061097 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3418

Abstract

For decades, society has been changing towards an energy mix that enhances the use of renewable sources and a more distributed generation of energy. The agricultural sector is included in this trend, which is why several studies are currently being carried out focused on the use of solar energy in greenhouses. This article aims to demonstrate the viability of a greenhouse that integrates, as a novelty, semi-transparent amorphous silicon photovoltaic (PV) glass (a-Si), covering the entire roof surface and the main sides of the greenhouse. The designed prototype is formed by a simple rectangular structure 12 m long and 2.5 m wide, with a monopitch roof, oriented to the southwest, and with a 35° inclination. The greenhouse is divided into two contiguous equal sections, each with an area of 15 m², and physically separated by an interior partition transparent wall. The surface enclosure of one of the sections is made of conventional glass, and the one of the other, of PV glass. How the presence of semitransparent PV glass influences the growth of horticultural crops has been studied, finding that it slightly reduces the production of vegetal mass and accelerates the apical growth mechanism of heliophilic plants. However, from a statistical point of view, this influence is negligible, so it is concluded that the studied technology is viable for horticultural production. The energy balance carried out indicates that the energy produced by the PV system is greater than the energy consumed by the greenhouse, which shows that the greenhouse is completely viable and self-sufficient for sites with the adequate solar resource. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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24 pages, 5742 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

LoRa-LBO: An Experimental Analysis of LoRa Link Budget Optimization in Custom Build IoT Test Bed for Agriculture 4.0

by Mahendra Swain, Dominik Zimon, Rajesh Singh, Mohammad Farukh Hashmi, Mamoon Rashid and Saqib Hakak

Agronomy 2021, 11(5), 820; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11050820 - 22 Apr 2021

Cited by 47 | Viewed by 5247

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) is transforming all applications into real-time monitoring systems. Due to the advancement in sensor technology and communication protocols, the implementation of the IoT is occurring rapidly. In agriculture, the IoT is encouraging implementation of real-time monitoring of crop fields from any remote location. However, there are several agricultural challenges regarding low power use and long-range transmission for effective implementation of the IoT. These challenges are overcome by integrating a long-range (LoRa) communication modem with customized, low-power hardware for transmitting agricultural field data to a cloud server. In this study, we implemented a custom-based sensor node, gateway, and handheld device for real-time transmission of agricultural data to a cloud server. Moreover, we calibrated certain LoRa field parameters, such as link budget, spreading factor, and receiver sensitivity, to extract the correlation of these parameters on a custom-built LoRa testbed in MATLAB. An energy harvesting mechanism is also presented in this article for analyzing the lifetime of the sensor node. Furthermore, this article addresses the significance and distinct kinds of localization algorithms. Based on the MATLAB simulation, we conclude that hybrid range-based localization algorithms are more reliable and scalable for deployment in the agricultural field. Finally, a real-time experiment was conducted to analyze the performance of custom sensor nodes, gateway, and handheld devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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17 pages, 3273 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects on Crop Development, Yields and Chemical Composition of Celeriac (Apium graveolens L. var. rapaceum) Cultivated Underneath an Agrivoltaic System

by Axel Weselek, Andrea Bauerle, Sabine Zikeli, Iris Lewandowski and Petra Högy

Agronomy 2021, 11(4), 733; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11040733 - 10 Apr 2021

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5411

Abstract

Agrivoltaic (AV) systems increase land productivity through the combined production of renewable energy and food. Although several studies have addressed their impact on crop production, many aspects remain unexplored. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of AV on the cultivation of celeriac, a common root vegetable in Central Europe. Celeriac was cultivated in 2017 and 2018 as part of an organically managed on-farm experiment, both underneath an AV system and in full-sun conditions. Under AV, photosynthetic active radiation was reduced by about 30%. Monitoring of crop development showed that in both years, plant height increased significantly under AV. Fresh bulb yield decreased by about 19% in 2017 and increased by about 12% in 2018 in AV, but the changes were not significant. Aboveground biomass increased in both years under AV, but only increased significantly in 2018. As aboveground biomass is a determinant of root biomass at harvest in root vegetables, bulb yields may be further increased by a prolonged vegetation period under AV. Compound analysis of celeriac bulbs did not show any clear effects from treatment. As harvestable yields were not significantly reduced, we concluded that celeriac can be considered a suitable crop for cultivation under AV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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17 pages, 8303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improving the Power Supply Performance in Rural Smart Grids with Photovoltaic DG by Optimizing Fuse Selection

by Santiago Pindado, Daniel Alcala-Gonzalez, Daniel Alfonso-Corcuera, Eva M. García del Toro and María Isabel Más-López

Agronomy 2021, 11(4), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11040622 - 25 Mar 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1974

Abstract

The recent increase in the use of renewable sources in electrical systems has transformed the electrical distribution network with the subsequent implementation of the distributed generation (DG) concept. The high penetration level of photovoltaic units increases their injected fault current that may result in a lack of coordination of fuse reclosers in distribution networks. One of the main protection devices that is generally used in rural distribution networks is the fuse. A correct size selection is key for ensuring good operation and coordination with other protection devices. The DG implementation makes the selection above more difficult, as the current flow both in steady state and in case of short-circuit is subject to alterations. A new protection fuse selection method for distribution networks with implemented DG is proposed in this paper with the aim of ensuring an effective coordination between them, avoiding untimely behaviors. Different case studies have been analyzed (for diverse locations of DG in the network with various penetration levels which represent 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the total installed load), using an IEEE 13-node test feeder. Besides, a new model to analyze fuse performance is proposed in this work. This model has proven to fit the manufacturer’s data well, with a maximum error of 2% within the normal trip current values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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24 pages, 2404 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Techno-Economic Viability of Agro-Photovoltaic Irrigated Arable Lands in the EU-Med Region: A Case-Study in Southwestern Spain

by Guillermo P. Moreda, Miguel A. Muñoz-García, M. Carmen Alonso-García and Luis Hernández-Callejo

Agronomy 2021, 11(3), 593; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030593 - 20 Mar 2021

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 6081

Abstract

Solar photovoltaic (PV) energy is positioned to play a major role in the electricity generation mix of Mediterranean countries. Nonetheless, substantial increase in ground-mounted PV installed capacity could lead to competition with the agricultural use of land. A way to avert the peril is the electricity-food dual use of land or agro-photovoltaics (APV). Here, the profitability of a hypothetical APV system deployed on irrigated arable lands of southwestern Spain is analyzed. The basic generator design, comprised of fixed-tilt opaque monofacial PV modules on a 5 m ground-clearance substructure, featured 555.5 kWp/ha. Two APV shed orientations, due south and due southwest, were compared. Two 4-year annual-crop rotations, cultivated beneath the heightened PV modules and with each rotation spanning 24 ha, were studied. One crop rotation was headed by early potato, while the other was headed by processing tomato. All 9 crops involved fulfilled the two-fold condition of being usually cultivated in the area and compatible with APV shed intermitent shading. Crop revenues under the partial shading of PV modules were derived from official average yields in the area, through the use of two alternative sets of coefficients generated for low and high crop-yield shade-induced penalty. Likewise, two irrigation water sources, surface and underground, were compared. Crop total production costs, PV system investment and operating costs and revenues from the sale of electricity, were calculated. The internal rates of return (IRRs) obtained ranged from a minimum of 3.8% for the combination of southwest orientation, early-potato rotation, groundwater and high shade-induced crop-yield penalty, to a maximum of 5.6% for the combination of south orientation, processing-tomato rotation, surface water and low shade-induced crop-yield penalty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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18 pages, 6245 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Design and Analysis of Photovoltaic Powered Battery-Operated Computer Vision-Based Multi-Purpose Smart Farming Robot

by Aneesh A. Chand, Kushal A. Prasad, Ellen Mar, Sanaila Dakai, Kabir A. Mamun, F. R. Islam, Utkal Mehta and Nallapaneni Manoj Kumar

Agronomy 2021, 11(3), 530; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030530 - 11 Mar 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5575

Abstract

Farm machinery like water sprinklers (WS) and pesticide sprayers (PS) are becoming quite popular in the agricultural sector. The WS and PS are two distinct types of machinery, mostly powered using conventional energy sources. In recent times, the battery and solar-powered WS and PS have also emerged. With the current WS and PS, the main drawback is the lack of intelligence on water and pesticide use decisions and autonomous control. This paper proposes a novel multi-purpose smart farming robot (MpSFR) that handles both water sprinkling and pesticide spraying. The MpSFR is a photovoltaic (PV) powered battery-operated internet of things (IoT) and computer vision (CV) based robot that helps in automating the watering and spraying process. Firstly, the PV-powered battery-operated autonomous MpSFR equipped with a storage tank for water and pesticide drove with a programmed pumping device is engineered. The sprinkling and spraying mechanisms are made fully automatic with a programmed pattern that utilizes IoT sensors and CV to continuously monitor the soil moisture and the plant’s health based on pests. Two servo motors accomplish the horizontal and vertical orientation of the spraying nozzle. We provided an option to remotely switch the sprayer to spray either water or pesticide using an infrared device, i.e., within a 5-m range. Secondly, the operation of the developed MpSFR is experimentally verified in the test farm. The field test’s observed results include the solar power profile, battery charging, and discharging conditions. The results show that the MpSFR operates effectively, and decisions on water use and pesticide are automated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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23 pages, 2822 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Estimation of the Hourly Global Solar Irradiation on the Tilted and Oriented Plane of Photovoltaic Solar Panels Applied to Greenhouse Production

by Francisco J. Diez, Andrés Martínez-Rodríguez, Luis M. Navas-Gracia, Leticia Chico-Santamarta, Adriana Correa-Guimaraes and Renato Andara

Agronomy 2021, 11(3), 495; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11030495 - 6 Mar 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3993

Abstract

Agrometeorological stations have horizontal solar irradiation data available, but the design and simulation of photovoltaic (PV) systems require data about the solar panel (inclined and/or oriented). Greenhouses for agricultural production, outside the large protected production areas, are usually off-grid; thus, the solar irradiation variable on the panel plane is critical for an optimal PV design. Modeling of solar radiation components (beam, diffuse, and ground-reflected) is carried out by calculating the extraterrestrial solar radiation, solar height, angle of incidence, and diffuse solar radiation. In this study, the modeling was done using Simulink-MATLAB blocks to facilitate its application, using the day of the year, the time of day, and the hourly horizontal global solar irradiation as input variables. The rest of the parameters (i.e., inclination, orientation, solar constant, albedo, latitude, and longitude) were fixed in each block. The results obtained using anisotropic models of diffuse solar irradiation of the sky in the region of Castile and León (Spain) showed improvements over the results obtained with isotropic models. This work enables the precise estimation of solar irradiation on a solar panel flexibly, for particular places, and with the best models for each of the components of solar radiation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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16 pages, 259 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A First Investigation of Agriculture Sector Perspectives on the Opportunities and Barriers for Agrivoltaics

by Alexis S. Pascaris, Chelsea Schelly and Joshua M. Pearce

Agronomy 2020, 10(12), 1885; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10121885 - 28 Nov 2020

Cited by 63 | Viewed by 10860

Abstract

Agrivoltaic systems are a strategic and innovative approach to combine solar photovoltaic (PV)-based renewable energy generation with agricultural production. Recognizing the fundamental importance of farmer adoption in the successful diffusion of the agrivoltaic innovation, this study investigates agriculture sector experts’ perceptions on the opportunities and barriers to dual land-use systems. Using in-depth, semistructured interviews, this study conducts a first study to identify challenges to farmer adoption of agrivoltaics and address them by responding to societal concerns. Results indicate that participants see potential benefits for themselves in combined solar and agriculture technology. The identified barriers to adoption of agrivoltaics, however, include: (i) desired certainty of long-term land productivity, (ii) market potential, (iii) just compensation and (iv) a need for predesigned system flexibility to accommodate different scales, types of operations, and changing farming practices. The identified concerns in this study can be used to refine the technology to increase adoption among farmers and to translate the potential of agrivoltaics to address the competition for land between solar PV and agriculture into changes in solar siting, farming practice, and land-use decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

18 pages, 4237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Micro-Grid Solar Photovoltaic Systems for Rural Development and Sustainable Agriculture in Palestine

by Imad Ibrik

Agronomy 2020, 10(10), 1474; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101474 - 26 Sep 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 5215

Abstract

The objective of this paper is to study the impact of using micro-grid solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in rural areas in the West Bank, Palestine. These systems may have the potential to provide rural electrification and encourage rural development, as PV panels are now becoming more financially attractive due to their falling costs. The implementation of solar PV systems in such areas improves social and communal services, water supply and agriculture, as well as other productive activities. It may also convert these communities into more environmentally sustainable ones. The present paper details two case studies from Palestine and shows the inter-relation between energy, water and food in rural areas to demonstrate how the availability of sustainable energy can ensure water availability, improve agricultural productivity and increase food security. Further, the paper attempts to evaluate the technical and economic impacts of the application of nexus approaches to Palestine’s rural areas. The results of this study are for a real implemented project and predict the long-term success of small, sustainable energy projects in developing rural areas in Palestine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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15 pages, 4565 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modeling of Stochastic Temperature and Heat Stress Directly Underneath Agrivoltaic Conditions with Orthosiphon Stamineus Crop Cultivation

by Noor Fadzlinda Othman, Mohammad Effendy Yaacob, Ahmad Suhaizi Mat Su, Juju Nakasha Jaafar, Hashim Hizam, Mohd Fairuz Shahidan, Ahmad Hakiim Jamaluddin, Guangnan Chen and Adam Jalaludin

Agronomy 2020, 10(10), 1472; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101472 - 25 Sep 2020

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3797

Abstract

This paper presents the field measured data of the ambient temperature profile and the heat stress occurrences directly underneath ground-mounted solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays (monocrystalline-based), focusing on different temperature levels. A previous study has shown that a 1 °C increase in PV cell temperature results in a reduction of 0.5% in energy conversion efficiency; thus, the temperature factor is critical, especially to solar farm operators. The transpiration process also plays an important role in the cooling of green plants where, on average, it could dissipate a significant amount of the total solar energy absorbed by the leaves, making it a good natural cooling mechanism. It was found from this work that the PV system’s bottom surface temperature was the main source of dissipated heat, as shown in the thermal images recorded at 5-min intervals at three sampling times. A statistical analysis further showed that the thermal correlation for the transpiration process and heat stress occurrences between the PV system’s bottom surface and plant height will be an important factor for large scale plant cultivation in agrivoltaic farms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Photovoltaics and Electrification in Agriculture)

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