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Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Applied Microbiology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 April 2024) | Viewed by 10377

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Dr. Dana Kristen Dittoe

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Department of Animal Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071, USA
Interests: meat microbiology; pre- and post-harvest food safety; poultry science; microbial ecology; shelf-life extension

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are inviting submissions for the Special Issue, “Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science”.

Microorganisms are proliferant in the environment (litter, feed, water, etc.) and within poultry themselves. The gastrointestinal tract of poultry, especially the ceca, is home to a vast array of bacteria. These bacteria can benefit the host (probiotic), have no effect (commensal), or cause disease in the bird or humans (pathogen). A complex interaction between these bacteria occurs in the poultry gastrointestinal microbiota or microbiome.

The beneficial microbiota coexisting in the microbiome potentially provide disease-sparing effects and improve growth performance. Additionally, there is a vast effort to isolate, identify, and utilize these beneficial microbiota and their by-products across the poultry industry. Additionally, there is a large effort among researchers to effectively understand and modulate the poultry microbiome in order to improve health and performance among poultry. These efforts use biotechnology to improve our understanding of the microbiota and their by-products, as well as develop targeted approaches for their utilization.

The aim of this Special Issue is to collect the most up-to-date information on recent advancements in the direct application of microbial biotechnology throughout the poultry industry (broilers, layers, and turkeys) while addressing their impact on health, disease, and performance. As well, this Special Issue will address the use of microbial biotechnology in advancing food safety efforts across the pre- and post-harvest of poultry and poultry products.

Dr. Dana Kristen Dittoe
Guest Editor

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Keywords

microbiome
microbial biotechnology
nutrition
food safety
broilers
turkeys
laying hens

Published Papers (11 papers)

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8 pages, 236 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Gentamicin Susceptibility and Comparison of Adhesion and Invasion of Caco-2 and HD11 Cell Lines by Salmonella enterica Serotypes

by Juliany Rivera Calo, Peter M. Rubinelli and Steven C. Ricke

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(8), 3305; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14083305 - 14 Apr 2024

Viewed by 347

Abstract

Foodborne Salmonella serovars are important facultative intracellular pathogens that cause gastroenteritis in humans. Four strains from three of the more predominant Salmonella serovars in poultry were studied: Typhimurium, Enteritidis, and Heidelberg. Gentamicin susceptibility was determined using an agar disc diffusion test and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays for S. Typhimurium ATCC 14028 and S. Heidelberg ARI-14. Both strains were susceptible to gentamicin in disc diffusion. The MIC of gentamicin was approximately 125 mg/ml for all strains tested. These strains’ adhesion and invasion abilities were determined with two different cell lines, a human intestinal epithelial cell line (Caco-2) as well as a chicken macrophage cell line (HD11). Attachment percentages for each Salmonella strain were greater than the strain’s ability to invade cells. Similar attachment percentages to Caco-2 cells were observed for S. Typhimurium and S. Heidelberg. Attachment percentages were lower in HD11 cells than in Caco-2 cells, although Salmonella exhibited higher apparent HD11 invasion, likely from HD11 phagocytosis. Salmonella Enteritidis showed lower rates of adhesion and invasion in HD11 cells compared to Salmonella Typhimurium. Developing a better understanding of Salmonella virulence mechanisms is critical to reducing Salmonella infections. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

13 pages, 2369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Selected Plant Extracts in Controlling and Neutralizing Toxins and Sporozoites Associated with Necrotic Enteritis and Coccidiosis

by Md Maruf Khan, Hyun S. Lillehoj, Youngsub Lee, Adedeji O. Adetunji, Paul C. Omaliko, Hye Won Kang and Yewande O. Fasina

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(8), 3178; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14083178 - 10 Apr 2024

Viewed by 442

Abstract

Due to increasing concerns about the contamination of animal food products with antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their byproducts, phytogenic feed additives in animal diets have been explored as antibiotic alternatives. In this study, we investigated the effect of ginger root extract (GRE), green tea extract (GTEC caffeinated and GTED decaffeinated), and onion peel combined (OPEC) on the activity of C. perfringens toxin genes and Eimeria tenella sporozoites. To this end, two Clostridium perfringens strains, CP19 and CP240 (Rollins Diagnostic Lab, Raleigh, NC, USA), were cultured (three replicates per treatment) as follows: without additives (Control), with Bacitracin Methylene Disalicylate (BMD), with GRE, with GTEC, with GTED, and, finally, with OPEC for 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 24 h. RNA was extracted to determine the expression of tpeL, alpha toxin (α-toxin), and NetB and we measured the protein concentration of NetB-positive C. perfringens toxin. Also, we evaluated the cytotoxic effect of green tea and ginger extracts on E. tenella sporozoites. Results show that phytogenic extracts, GRE, GTEC, and GTED, significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the level of expression of α-toxin gene compared to control; however, BMD treatment showed much less effect. Furthermore, NetB and tpeL encoding gene expression was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced by GRE and GTED, as well as BMD treatment, compared to the control. In contrast, GTEC treatment did not change the expression levels of these genes and was similar to control. With the CP240 strain, all the selected phytogenic extracts significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the expression of selected genes, except for OPEC, which was similar to control. GRE, GTEC, and GTED all reduced the viability of concentration of E. tenella sporozoites. Overall, our data show that these selected phytogenic extracts reduced the level of expression of toxin encoding genes associated with necrotic enteritis and decreased the viability of sporozoites which cause coccidiosis in broiler chicken. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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22 pages, 633 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Feeding Recycled Food Waste-Based Diets on Gut Health, Nutrient Digestibility, and Bone Quality in Laying Hens

by Hiep Thi Dao, Nishchal K. Sharma, Eunjoo Kim, Reza Barekatain, Robert A. Swick and Amy F. Moss

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(7), 2733; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14072733 - 25 Mar 2024

Viewed by 540

Abstract

This study explored feeding recycled food waste-based diets for gut health, nutrient digestibility, bone morphology, and bone mineral level in laying hens. Hy-Line Brown laying hens (n = 150) were randomly allocated to three experimental treatments consisting of a commercial control diet, a recycled food waste-based diet, and a 50:50 blend of the control and food waste-based diets, with 50 replicates of a single bird per cage per treatment from 24 to 63 weeks of age. Egg production was recorded daily and feed intake was measured weekly. The gut pH, jejunal and ileal morphology, nutrient digestibility, bone morphology, and mineral composition were measured at 63 weeks of age. Hens on the food waste-based treatment had similar egg production but lower feed conversion ratio (FCR, 1.948 vs. 2.172 kg feed/kg egg, p < 0.001) and higher ileal pH (p < 0.001) and bone ash content (p < 0.001) compared to birds on the control treatment. Moreover, hens fed the food waste-based diets had higher ileal digestible energy (p < 0.001); ileal energy digestibility (p < 0.01); tibia S, Fe, Mn, and Zn levels (p < 0.05); and Mg, K, S, Mn, and Mo digestibility (p < 0.05) compared to hens fed the control diets. Hens offered the 50:50 blend diets had higher tibia P, Mg, and Mo levels (p < 0.05) and higher Ca digestibility (p < 0.05) compared to those fed the control diets. Thus, feeding recycled food waste-based diets is effective to improve laying performance, nutrient digestibility, and bone mineralization in laying hens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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15 pages, 1381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of AM/PM Diets on Laying Performance, Egg Quality, and Nutrient Utilisation in Free-Range Laying Hens

by Afsana A. Jahan, Thi Hiep Dao, Natalie K. Morgan, Tamsyn M. Crowley and Amy F. Moss

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(5), 2163; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14052163 - 05 Mar 2024

Viewed by 786

Abstract

Laying hen nutrient requirements change throughout the day, due to the cyclic nature of egg formation. Generally, more energy and protein are required in the morning when the albumen is deposited around the yolk, and more calcium is required in the evening when the eggshell is formed. The aim of this study was to determine if feeding laying hens diets tailored to their specific nutritional and physiological requirements throughout the day, by feeding higher levels of protein and energy in the morning and higher levels of calcium in the evening, is more beneficial than feeding one diet all day. Hy-Line Brown laying hens (n = 360) were housed in free-range floor pens (18 pens with 20 hens/pen) from 34 to 53 weeks of age (WOA). Half of the birds (n = 180, nine replicate pens) were fed a conventional layer hen diet all day (control) and the remaining birds (n = 180, nine replicate pens) were fed an AM diet from 08:00 h to 16:00 h and PM diet from 16:00 h to 08:00 h (AM/PM). From 39 WOA, hens were given access to an outdoor range from 09:00 h to 18:00 h via pop holes. Egg weight and hen-day egg production were measured daily, and feed consumption and the feed conversion ratio (FCR) were measured weekly. Hen weight and egg size uniformity were determined at 43 and 53 WOA, and egg quality was measured at 53 WOA. A total of 72 hens (4 hens/pen, 36 hens/treatment) were euthanised at 53 WOA to determine ileal apparent energy and nitrogen digestibility. A cost–benefit analysis for the study period, based on feed costs and egg mass, was calculated. Overall, the results showed that the AM/PM treatment increased egg mass by 2.15% (60.4 vs. 59.1 g/hen/day, p = 0.086) and improved feed efficiency by 8.34% (2.231 vs. 2.436 kg feed/kg egg, p = 0.030) compared with the control. A higher yolk colour score was observed in eggs from hens on the AM/PM treatment (p = 0.002), but no other significant effects of the treatments on egg quality were observed. Ileal digestible energy and digestible nitrogen coefficient were lower in hens on the AM/PM treatment compared with the control treatment (both p < 0.001). However, the AM/PM treatment was attributed to a lower feed cost to egg mass compared with the control treatment (p < 0.001). In conclusion, using an AM/PM feeding strategy was found to be economically beneficial. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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13 pages, 2390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Turkey-Derived Lactic-Acid-Producing Bacteria as Potential Probiotics for Use in Commercial Turkeys

by Abigail Johnson, Bonnie P. Weber, Divek T. Nair, Randall S. Singer, Anup Kollanoor Johny and Timothy J. Johnson

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(5), 2010; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14052010 - 29 Feb 2024

Viewed by 462

Abstract

Lactic-acid-producing bacteria (LAB) are widely used in the poultry industry, and they are positively associated with gut health and growth performance. Despite their wide use in poultry production, LAB appear to be highly variable in their ability to modulate poultry gut health and growth performance. Furthermore, most commercially available LAB probiotics are not host specific; thus, few poultry-specific and even fewer turkey-specific probiotics exist. The objective of this study was to use probiotic screening assays to compare relevant phenotypic differences amongst different species of turkey-derived LAB, in an effort to identify potential probiotics for use in turkey production. Different in vitro assays were used to compare the probiotic potential (phenotype) of each turkey-derived LAB isolate. Twenty-four isolates representing eight different species and five different genera were used for our experiments. These assays included acid tolerance, bile tolerance, and adhesion ability. There was variability in assay performance across many individual strains in every assay performed. Isolates between species and, in some cases, isolates within the same species, differed in their performance between the assays. Some isolates that were identified performed favorably in all the assays in this study. In conclusion, high-performing isolates were identified in this study, which hold potential for influencing turkey health and productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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17 pages, 2058 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Simple, Inexpensive Alkaline Method for Bacterial DNA Extraction from Environmental Samples for PCR Surveillance and Microbiome Analyses

by Abdulkarim Shwani, Bin Zuo, Adnan Alrubaye, Jiangchao Zhao and Douglas D. Rhoads

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(1), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14010141 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2360

Abstract

DNA extraction for downstream molecular diagnostic applications can be an expensive, time-consuming process. We devised a method to quickly extract total bacterial DNA from environmental samples based on the sodium hydroxide lysis of cells with or without capture by magnetic beads for subsequent PCR or quantitative PCR. The final DNA extraction method using NaOH is extremely low-cost and can be completed in as little as 10 min at room temperature with dilution, or the DNA can be further purified using silica-coated paramagnetic beads. NaOH extraction was effective for Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in samples from air, soil, sewage, food, laboratory surfaces, and chicken cloacal swabs. The NaOH extraction method was comparable to commercial kits for extraction of DNA from pig fecal samples for 16S amplicon sequencing analyses. We demonstrated that an impinger and portable pump can efficiently capture bacteria from the air in poultry facilities for rapid NaOH extraction to quantify total bacteria and for detection of specific species using qPCR. The air sampling and NaOH extraction procedures are well suited for routine, high-throughput screening and for metagenomic analyses for specific pathogens, even in resource-limited situations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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22 pages, 1020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Order of Limiting Amino Acids in a Wheat–Sorghum-Based Reduced-Protein Diet for Laying Hens

by Afsana A. Jahan, Thi Hiep Dao, Nasima Akter, Sukirno, Robert A. Swick, Natalie K. Morgan, Tamsyn M. Crowley and Amy F. Moss

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12934; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312934 - 03 Dec 2023

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Abstract

Understanding the order of limiting amino acids (AA) in reduced-protein (RP) diets for laying hens will facilitate precise feed formulation and ensure that AA requirements are met cost-effectively. The order of the first three limiting AAs—lysine (Lys), methionine (Met), and threonine (Thr)—has been well established in RP laying hen diets. This study aimed to determine the priority order of eight additional limiting AAs (critically important AAs) when formulating wheat–sorghum-based RP diets for laying hens: tryptophan (Trp), valine (Val), isoleucine (Ile), arginine (Arg), leucine (Leu), histidine (His), phenylalanine (Phe), and glycine_equivalent (Gly). A total of 330 Hy-Line Brown laying hens were randomly assigned to 11 dietary treatments (30 replicates of individual birds per treatment) from 20 to 39 weeks of age (WOA). Treatments were a standard-protein (17.24% CP) diet as the control (SP); a reduced-protein (15.00% CP) diet with sufficient levels of Lys, Met, and Thr but insufficient levels of the eight experimental essential AA (RP); a reduced-protein diet with sufficient levels of all essential AAs (RP-EAA); and eight subsequent dietary treatments of the RP-EAA diet with one of the experimental essential AAs removed: Trp (RP-EAA-Trp), Val (RP-EAA-Val), Ile (RP-EAA-Ile), Arg (RP-EAA-Arg), Leu (RP-EAA-Leu), His (RP-EAA-His), Phe (RP-EAA-Phe), and Gly (RP-EAA-Gly). Eggs were collected and weighed daily, and feed intake and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were calculated weekly. External and internal egg quality was measured at 29 and 39 WOA. Nutrient digestibility, serum uric acid concentration, caecal microbiota composition, and tibia parameters were measured at 40 WOA. Overall, hens fed the RP-EAA-Val, RP-EAA-Ile, and RP diets presented significantly lower egg mass compared to hens fed the SP, RP-EAA-His, and RP-EAA-Gly diets (p < 0.001). Hens fed the RP diet and RP-EAA-Val diet had a higher FCR compared to those offered the RP-EAA, RP-EAA-Leu, RP-EAA-Phe, and RP-EAA-Gly diets (p = 0.046). Lower protein intake and excretion were observed in hens offered the RP diets compared to hens fed the SP diet (p = 0.001 and 0.018, respectively). Based on the egg mass, Ile may be considered the fourth and Val the fifth limiting AA, after Lys, Met, and Thr, in laying hens fed wheat–sorghum-based RP diets during peak lay. However, if ranked based on FCR, Val may be considered the fourth limiting AA, followed by Trp, Ile, Arg, and His as the co-fifth limiting AAs. Leu, Phe, and Gly may be considered as non-essential AAs for laying hens fed RP diets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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13 pages, 2594 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Ileal and Cecal Microbiota Composition of a 1940 Heritage Genetic Line and a 2016 Commercial Line of white Leghorns Fed Representative Diets from 1940 to 2016

by Dannica C. Wall, Dana Dittoe, Ramon D. Malherios, Kenneth E. Anderson and Nick Anthony

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12259; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212259 - 13 Nov 2023

Viewed by 538

Abstract

This study identified and evaluated differences between microbiome compositions of the ileum and ceca of 1940 and 2016 white leghorn genetic strains fed representative contemporary diets from those times. Ileal and cecal samples were collected at 69 weeks of age. Alpha and beta diversity metrics were generated, and the Analysis of Composition of Microbiomes (ANCOM) was utilized to determine significantly different taxa. Ileum and ceca alpha diversity were significantly different (p = 0.001; Q = 0.001); however, no differences between genetic lineage were observed (p > 0.05; Q > 0.05). Beta diversity between the ileum and ceca and the genetic lines was significantly different (p = 0.001; Q = 0.001). The ANCOM of the ileum showed significant differences between Proteobacteria and Actinobacteriota phyla (p ˂ 0.05) and significant differences between Pseudomonas, Rhizobiaceae, Leuconostoc, and Aeriscardovia genera (p ˂ 0.05). For ceca ANCOM, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteriota, and Euryarchaeota phyla were significantly different (p ˂ 0.05), with Firmicutes having the highest relative abundance across all groups, and there were significant differences in genera Pseudomonas, Leuconostoc, Alloprevotella, and Aeri scardovia, with Alloprevotella having the highest relative abundance. The results suggest that genetic makeup in conjunction with the nutritional composition influences the cecal and ileal microbiota of corresponding hens. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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24 pages, 1744 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Bioactive Compounds and the Effect of Allyl-Isothiocyanate on Chicken Meat Quality under Refrigerated Conditions

by Khabat Noori Hussein, László Friedrich, István Dalmadi and Gabriella Kiskó

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 10953; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131910953 - 04 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1051

Abstract

Natural antimicrobials are effective against both food-borne pathogens and spoilage bacteria. The current study aimed to evaluate the in vitro antimicrobial activity of eight natural bioactive compounds (BACs) and one synthetic compound, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and to evaluate the effect of one selected BAC (AITC) on the safety and quality of minced chicken meat. Additionally, physicochemical (pH, color, water-holding capacity (WHC), chemical forms of myoglobin (deoxymyoglobin-DeoMb, oxymyoglobin-OxyMb, and metmyoglobin-MetMb), thiobarbituric-acid-reactive substances (TBARs)), and microbiological properties (in vitro antimicrobial activity and determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)) were also evaluated through electronic-nose odor detection. Allyl-isothiocyanate (AITC), thymol, eugenol, and geraniol showed the broadest spectrum of in vitro antibacterial activity against one major meat spoilage bacterium and five pathogenic bacteria that were tested. Subsequently, AITC was selected to be applied to fresh minced chicken meat at different concentrations (at concentrations of the MIC (MIC-1), two times the MIC (MIC-2), and four times the MIC (MIC-4)). The chicken meat was then vacuum-packaged and kept for up to 14 days at 4 °C, and its quality properties were checked during storage. In this study, the addition of low concentrations of AITC (MIC-1) maintained the lightness (L*) and increased the WHC of the meat. High concentrations (MIC-2 and MIC-4) caused a significant increase in lightness (L*) and folded yellowness (b*) value, and they significantly reduced the redness (a*) and TBARS values compared to the control meat. The amounts of MetMb and DeoMb were reduced and the quantity of OxyMb was increased as a result of the addition of AITC to the chicken breast. Throughout storage, particularly at MIC-4, AITC showed the lowest numbers of aerobic mesophilic cells, as well as a reduction in Listeria monocytogenes cell numbers and a decrease in Salmonella Typhimurium counts. In addition, the meat containing MIC-4 did not exhibit growth of Pseudomonas lundensis after 10 days. During the storage period, an electronic-nose assay demonstrated a distinction in the odor buildup of AITC across the various meat groups, and meat treated with MIC-4 showed a trend that was clearly opposite to that of untreated meat. These encouraging results demonstrate the potential of AITC to improve the safety and shelf life of meat and meat products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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9 pages, 2317 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

The Effect of Duck Bile Acid Extract on the Fecal Microbiota, Short Chain Fatty Acids, Fat Digestibility and Blood Biochemical Indices in Cats

by Bing Han, Peng Zhao, Shukun Liang, Zhenlong Wang, Hui Tao, Xiumin Wang, Jie Liu and Jinquan Wang

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(17), 9713; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13179713 - 28 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1111

Abstract

Bile acids (BAs) have been widely used on livestock in recent years and could be a good feed additive to improve the performances of animals. But the effects of bile acid on cats have not been studied. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of the bile acid from ducks on cats. Five healthy cats, which were two years old, were studied with a dose of the bile acid product being 50 mg/kg body weight per day. On day 0 (group A) and day 28 (group B), the fecal flora, volatile fatty acids, fat digestibility, and blood biochemical Indices of cats were studied and tested. The results showed that BAs could probably modulate the fat metabolism and gut microflora of cats and could improve the digestibility of different nutritional ingredients. The cholesterol of blood was greatly decreased and the cholesterol and activity of amylase were improved by 20.9% (p < 0.05) and 21.1% (p < 0.05), respectively. Fat digestibility was improved by 5.68% (p < 0.05) and the body weight on day 28 was decreased without significance (p > 0.05). The abundance of the Bifidobacterium on day 28 was greatly increased (p < 0.05) after using BAs product. The research showed that duck BAs could modulate fat metabolism and increase probiotics of the gut in cats and could probably be a good feed additive to reduce weight and improve gut health for cats in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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Review

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17 pages, 331 KiB

Open AccessReview

Vaccine Immunogenicity versus Gastrointestinal Microbiome Status: Implications for Poultry Production

by Chrysta N. Beck, Jiangchao Zhao and Gisela F. Erf

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(3), 1240; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14031240 - 02 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 952

Abstract

At the turn of the 21st century, the importance of maintaining a balanced microbiome was brought to the forefront of the microbiology, immunology, and physiology research fields. Exploring the complex interactions between vaccine administration, mucosal microbiome, oral tolerance, and enteric inflammation in health and disease is challenging since environmental factors (such as diet and sanitation) have major influences on gut microbiota composition. High enteric pathogen load has been shown to contribute to dampened cell-mediated and humoral immune responses to vaccines in human case studies, either through elevated enteric inflammation or increased tolerance to environmental microbes. Although antibiotic and probiotic interventions have been evaluated in human health as well as research animal models, effective measures to mediate vaccine hyporesponsiveness are still ill-defined. Research in this field is becoming increasingly important for managing flock health in commercial poultry production, especially as antibiotic-free production is more prevalent and vaccination programs remain extensive during the first weeks of a bird’s life. By understanding the cellular interactions between commensal microbiota, vaccine antigens, and the host immune system (particularly in avian models), advancements in bacterial and viral vaccine immunogenicity could lead to improved flock health in meat-type and egg-type chickens in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applied Microbial Biotechnology for Poultry Science)

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