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Applied Sciences
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Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems
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Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2018) | Viewed by 91776

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Haris Mouratidis

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester CO4 3SQ, UK
Interests: security and privacy requirements engineering; IoT, 5G, cyber-physical, and cloud computing security; model-based security/privacy engineering; security engineering decision support; security attack and threat discovery; security and privacy patterns; automated analysis tools
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Carsten Maple

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Cyber Security Centre, WMG, University of Warwick, Gibbett Hill Road, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
Interests: security in cyber physical systems; privacy enhancing technologies; human aspects of security; threat modeling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recent technological advantages in networking, sensors, computing and control systems have set the stage for an increased integration and interaction between digital systems, physical systems and humans. This becomes a reality through Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS). CPS are networked systems of cyber (computation and communication) and physical (sensors and actuators) components that interact with humans. Such systems have the potential to have a major impact on all aspects of our lives. Consider for example the advanced computing capabilities of new cars, the increasing use of smart devices in our houses, the importance of computerised systems in medical environments or the ability to control critical infrastructures from remote locations.

Despite all the benefits of CPS and the potential to transform everyday lives, there are major concerns regarding their security. There is a plethora of challenges in making CPS secure. For example, security concerns are raised due to the integration of components that might not have been designed or developed with security in mind or due to the increased number of attack opportunities that might be exploited because of the interconnection of such large numbers of components. With the increasing amount of data fuelling these systems, privacy is an increasingly important issue. CPS often collect huge amounts of information to make smart decisions and satisfy operational goals. Although such collection may be necessary for the operation of the CPS, it can also represent an invasion of privacy, especially when appropriate privacy-preserving technologies are not fully integrated into a CPS.

The main aim of this Special Issue is to present novel approaches and results for the security and privacy of Cyber-Physical Systems by taking into account the unique challenges that such systems present. Topics may include, but are not limited to:

  • Threat Modelling for CPS
  • Frameworks and methodologies for modelling and analysing security and privacy issues in CPSs
  • Intrusion Detection for CPS
  • Data Anonymisation for CPS
  • Secure Data Sharing in CPS
  • Privacy-enhancing technologies for CPS
  • Access Control and Key Management for CPS
  • Self-adaptive techniques for improving security and privacy in CPS
  • CPS system security and privacy modelling and simulation
  • Formal methods for security analysis of CPS
  • Architectures and platforms for secure CPSs
  • Human aspects around security and privacy issues of CPSs
  • Autonomous vehicle, and wider transport system, security and privacy
  • Cyber security of industrial cyber-physical systems

Prof. Dr. Haralambos Mouratidis
Prof. Dr. Carsten Maple
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Security
  • Privacy
  • Cyber Physical Systems
  • Trust
  • Threat Modelling
  • Key management
  • Human Factors

Published Papers (17 papers)

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27 pages, 3707 KiB  
Article
Efficacy Improvement of Anomaly Detection by Using Intelligence Sharing Scheme
by Muhammad Tahir, Mingchu Li, Naeem Ayoub and Muhammad Aamir
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(3), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9030364 - 22 Jan 2019
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3561
Abstract
Computer networks are facing threats of ever-increasing frequency and sophistication. Encryption is becoming the norm in both legitimate and malicious network traffic. Therefore, intrusion detection systems (IDSs) are now required to work efficiently regardless of the encryption. In this study, we propose two [...] Read more.
Computer networks are facing threats of ever-increasing frequency and sophistication. Encryption is becoming the norm in both legitimate and malicious network traffic. Therefore, intrusion detection systems (IDSs) are now required to work efficiently regardless of the encryption. In this study, we propose two new methods to improve the efficacy of the Cisco Cognitive Threat Analytics (CTA) system. In the first method, the efficacy of CTA is improved by sharing of intelligence information across a large number of enterprise networks. In the second method, a four variant-based global reputation model (GRM) is designed by employing an outlier ensemble normalization algorithm in the presence of missing data. Intelligence sharing provides additional information in the intrusion detection process, which is much needed, particularly for analysis of encrypted traffic with inherently low information content. Robustness of the novel outlier ensemble normalization algorithm is also demonstrated. These improvements are measured using both encrypted and non-encrypted network traffic. Results show that the proposed information sharing methods greatly improve the anomaly detection efficacy of malicious network behavior with bad base-line detection efficacy and slightly improve upon the average case. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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21 pages, 4993 KiB  
Article
Cyber-Physical Attack Detection and Recovery Based on RNN in Automotive Brake Systems
by Jongho Shin, Youngmi Baek, Jaeseong Lee and Seonghun Lee
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9(1), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/app9010082 - 26 Dec 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4425
Abstract
The violation of data integrity in automotive Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) may lead to dangerous situations for drivers and pedestrians in terms of safety. In particular, cyber-attacks on the sensor could easily degrade data accuracy and consistency over any other attack, we investigate attack [...] Read more.
The violation of data integrity in automotive Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) may lead to dangerous situations for drivers and pedestrians in terms of safety. In particular, cyber-attacks on the sensor could easily degrade data accuracy and consistency over any other attack, we investigate attack detection and identification based on a deep learning technology on wheel speed sensors of automotive CPS. For faster recovery of a physical system with detection of the cyber-attacks, estimation of a specific value is conducted to substitute false data. To the best of our knowledge, there has not been a case of joining sensor attack detection and vehicle speed estimation in existing literature. In this work, we design a novel method to combine attack detection and identification, vehicle speed estimation of wheel speed sensors to improve the safety of CPS even under the attacks. First, we define states of the sensors based on the cases of attacks that can occur in the sensors. Second, Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) is applied to detect and identify wheel speed sensor attacks. Third, in order to estimate the vehicle speeds accurately, we employ Weighted Average (WA), as one of the fusion algorithms, in order to assign a different weight to each sensor. Since environment uncertainty while driving has an impact on different characteristics of vehicles and causes performance degradation, the recovery mechanism needs the ability adaptive to changing environments. Therefore, we estimate the vehicle speeds after assigning a different weight to each sensor depending on driving situations classified by analyzing driving data. Experiments including training, validation, and test are carried out with actual measurements obtained while driving on the real road. In case of the fault detection and identification, classification accuracy is evaluated. Mean Squared Error (MSE) is calculated to verify that the speed is estimated accurately. The classification accuracy about test additive attack data is 99.4978%. MSE of our proposed speed estimation algorithm is 1.7786. It is about 0.2 lower than MSEs of other algorithms. We demonstrate that our system maintains data integrity well and is safe relatively in comparison with systems which apply other algorithms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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15 pages, 1032 KiB  
Article
A More Efficient Conditional Private Preservation Scheme in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks
by Tao Wang and Xiaohu Tang
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2546; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122546 - 08 Dec 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2799
Abstract
It is a challenging issue to provide a secure and conditional anonymous authentication scheme in vehicle ad hoc networks (VANETs) with low storage space and computational cost. In 2008, Lu et al. proposed a conditional privacy preservation scheme called efficiency conditional privacy preservation [...] Read more.
It is a challenging issue to provide a secure and conditional anonymous authentication scheme in vehicle ad hoc networks (VANETs) with low storage space and computational cost. In 2008, Lu et al. proposed a conditional privacy preservation scheme called efficiency conditional privacy preservation (ECPP) protocol. The ECPP protocol provides conditional privacy preservation to vehicles in VANETs. That is, on one hand vehicles can achieve anonymous authentication in the network, on the other hand, allow to be traced and revoked if necessary. However, ECPP scheme suffers from high computational cost and large storage. In this scheme, an improved protocol based on the concept of ECPP protocol has been proposed to achieve more efficiency conditional privacy preservation (MECPP) scheme in VANETs. Comparing with ECCP, the computational cost of the proposed scheme has been decreased by about 54 % while the communication overhead has been reduced by about 10 % . At the same time, a lot of storage space has been saved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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29 pages, 1523 KiB  
Article
Towards Industrial Intrusion Prevention Systems: A Concept and Implementation for Reactive Protection
by Cyntia Vargas Martínez and Birgit Vogel-Heuser
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(12), 2460; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8122460 - 02 Dec 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5073
Abstract
System intrusions violate the security of a system. In order to maintain it, it is necessary to decrease the chances of intrusions occurring or by detecting them as soon as they ensue in order to respond to them in a timely manner. These [...] Read more.
System intrusions violate the security of a system. In order to maintain it, it is necessary to decrease the chances of intrusions occurring or by detecting them as soon as they ensue in order to respond to them in a timely manner. These responses are divided in two types: passive or reactive responses. Passive responses are limited to only notification and alerting; whereas, reactive responses influence the intrusion by undoing or diminishing its consequences. Unfortunately, some reactive responses may influence the underlying system where the intrusion has occurred. This is especially a concern in the field of Industrial Automation Systems, as these systems are critical and have a well-defined set of operational requirements that must be maintained. Hence, automatic reactive responses are often not considered or are limited to human intervention. This paper addresses this issue by introducing a concept for reactive protection that integrates the automatic execution of active responses that do not influence the operation of the underlying Industrial Automation System. This concept takes into consideration architectural and security trends, as well as security and operational policies of Industrial Automation Systems. It also proposes a set of reactive actions that can be taken in the presence of intrusions in order to counteract them or diminish their effects. The feasibility and applicability of the presented concept for Industrial Automation Systems is supported by the implementation and evaluation of a prototypical Reactive Protection System. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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18 pages, 2683 KiB  
Article
An Improved Product Code-Based Data Hiding Scheme
by Wen-Rong Zhang and Yuh-Ming Huang
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(11), 2119; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8112119 - 01 Nov 2018
Viewed by 2373
Abstract
This paper explores the data hiding schemes which are based on the principle of matrix embedding. Under the same embedding rate, the efficiency of each data hiding scheme is evaluated by the metric of average embedding efficiency. In the literature, both the row-column [...] Read more.
This paper explores the data hiding schemes which are based on the principle of matrix embedding. Under the same embedding rate, the efficiency of each data hiding scheme is evaluated by the metric of average embedding efficiency. In the literature, both the row-column embedding and the weight approximation embedding algorithms are sub-optimal solutions for the product code-based data hiding problem. For the former, it is still based on the concept of one-dimensional (1-D) toggle syndrome, and the concept of two-dimensional (2-D) toggle syndrome is directly adopted for the latter one. Data hiding with multiple embedding channels is the practice of hiding messages into hidden media many times. Here, two multi-channel embedding-based data hiding techniques—one is the 1-D toggle syndrome-based embedding scheme (1DTS-1), and the other is the improved weight approximation-based embedding scheme (2DTS-1), are presented. In the former, the proposed one-off decision technique is used to determine the locations of the required modification bits, and the amount of modification will be reduced through utilizing the characteristics of the linear code. With the technique of the former, in the latter, the amount of modification bits can be further reduced because that a toggle array with better structure is generated, which is more suitable for being assigned as the initial toggle array while applying the weight approximation approach. The experimental results show our proposed hybrid 1-D/2-D toggle syndrome-based embedding scheme (2DTS-1) has increased the embedding efficiency by 0.1149 when compared to the weight approximation embedding algorithm. Further, the embedding efficiency of the latter one can be further and significantly enhanced through the Hamming+1 technique. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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32 pages, 501 KiB  
Article
Privacy-Preserving Monotonicity of Differential Privacy Mechanisms
by Hai Liu, Zhenqiang Wu, Yihui Zhou, Changgen Peng, Feng Tian and Laifeng Lu
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(11), 2081; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8112081 - 28 Oct 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4248
Abstract
Differential privacy mechanisms can offer a trade-off between privacy and utility by using privacy metrics and utility metrics. The trade-off of differential privacy shows that one thing increases and another decreases in terms of privacy metrics and utility metrics. However, there is no [...] Read more.
Differential privacy mechanisms can offer a trade-off between privacy and utility by using privacy metrics and utility metrics. The trade-off of differential privacy shows that one thing increases and another decreases in terms of privacy metrics and utility metrics. However, there is no unified trade-off measurement of differential privacy mechanisms. To this end, we proposed the definition of privacy-preserving monotonicity of differential privacy, which measured the trade-off between privacy and utility. First, to formulate the trade-off, we presented the definition of privacy-preserving monotonicity based on computational indistinguishability. Second, building on privacy metrics of the expected estimation error and entropy, we theoretically and numerically showed privacy-preserving monotonicity of Laplace mechanism, Gaussian mechanism, exponential mechanism, and randomized response mechanism. In addition, we also theoretically and numerically analyzed the utility monotonicity of these several differential privacy mechanisms based on utility metrics of modulus of characteristic function and variant of normalized entropy. Third, according to the privacy-preserving monotonicity of differential privacy, we presented a method to seek trade-off under a semi-honest model and analyzed a unilateral trade-off under a rational model. Therefore, privacy-preserving monotonicity can be used as a criterion to evaluate the trade-off between privacy and utility in differential privacy mechanisms under the semi-honest model. However, privacy-preserving monotonicity results in a unilateral trade-off of the rational model, which can lead to severe consequences. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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19 pages, 1836 KiB  
Article
A Privacy Measurement Framework for Multiple Online Social Networks against Social Identity Linkage
by Xuefeng Li, Yixian Yang, Yuling Chen and Xinxin Niu
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(10), 1790; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8101790 - 01 Oct 2018
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2969
Abstract
Recently, the number of people who are members of multiple online social networks simultaneously has increased. However, if these people share everything with others, they risk their privacy. Users may be unaware of the privacy risks involved with sharing their sensitive information on [...] Read more.
Recently, the number of people who are members of multiple online social networks simultaneously has increased. However, if these people share everything with others, they risk their privacy. Users may be unaware of the privacy risks involved with sharing their sensitive information on a network. Currently, there are many research efforts focused on social identity linkage (SIL) on multiple online social networks for commercial services, which exacerbates privacy issues. Many existing studies consider methods of encrypting or deleting sensitive information without considering if this is unreasonable for social networks. Meanwhile, these studies ignore privacy awareness, which is rudimentary and critical. To enhance privacy awareness, we discuss a user privacy exposure measure for users who are members of multiple online social networks. With this measure, users can be aware of the state of their privacy and their position on a privacy measurement scale. Additionally, we propose a straightforward method through our framework to reduce information loss and foster user privacy awareness by using spurious content for required fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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19 pages, 5497 KiB  
Article
Web-Based Android Malicious Software Detection and Classification System
by İbrahim Alper Doğru and Ömer KİRAZ
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(9), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8091622 - 12 Sep 2018
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4794
Abstract
Android is the most used operating system (OS) by mobile devices. Since applications uploaded to Google Play and other stores are not analyzed comprehensively, it is not known whether the applications are malicious software or not. Therefore, there is an urgent need to [...] Read more.
Android is the most used operating system (OS) by mobile devices. Since applications uploaded to Google Play and other stores are not analyzed comprehensively, it is not known whether the applications are malicious software or not. Therefore, there is an urgent need to analyze these applications regarding malicious software. Moreover, mobile devices have limited resources to analyze the applications. In this study, a malicious detection system named “Web-Based Android Malicious Software Detection and Classification System” was developed. The system is based on client-server architecture, static analysis and web-scraping methods. The proposed system overcomes the resource restriction issue, as well as providing third-party service support by means of client-server architecture. Based on the performance evaluation conducted in this research, the developed system’s success rate is 97.62% on benign and malicious datasets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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32 pages, 7105 KiB  
Article
A Novel Risk Assessment Methodology for SCADA Maritime Logistics Environments
by Eleni-Maria Kalogeraki, Spyridon Papastergiou, Haralambos Mouratidis and Nineta Polemi
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(9), 1477; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8091477 - 28 Aug 2018
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 7004
Abstract
In recent years maritime logistics infrastructures are the global links among societies and economies. This challenges adversaries to intrude on the cyber-dependent ICTs by performing high-level intelligent techniques. A potential cyber-attack on such infrastructures can cause tremendous damages starting from supply chain service [...] Read more.
In recent years maritime logistics infrastructures are the global links among societies and economies. This challenges adversaries to intrude on the cyber-dependent ICTs by performing high-level intelligent techniques. A potential cyber-attack on such infrastructures can cause tremendous damages starting from supply chain service disruption ending up with threatening the whole human welfare. Current risk management policies embed significant limitations in terms of capturing the specific security requirements of ICTs and control/monitoring devices, such as IoT platforms, satellites and time installations, which are primary functioning for the provision of Maritime Logistics and Supply Chain (MLoSC) services. This work presents a novel risk assessment methodology capable of addressing the security particularities and specificities of the complex nature of SCADA infrastructures and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs) of the Maritime Logistics Industry. The methodology identifies asset vulnerabilities and threats to estimate the cyber-risks and their cascading effects within the supply chain, introducing a set of subsequent security assessment services. The utilization of these services is demonstrated via a critical, real-life SCADA scenario indicating how they can facilitate supply chain operators in comprehending the threat landscape of their infrastructures and guide them how to adopt optimal mitigation strategies to counter or eliminate their cyber-risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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23 pages, 419 KiB  
Article
Efficient Implementations of Four-Dimensional GLV-GLS Scalar Multiplication on 8-Bit, 16-Bit, and 32-Bit Microcontrollers
by Jihoon Kwon, Seog Chung Seo and Seokhie Hong
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(6), 900; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8060900 - 31 May 2018
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2895
Abstract
In this paper, we present the first constant-time implementations of four-dimensional Gallant–Lambert–Vanstone and Galbraith–Lin–Scott (GLV-GLS) scalar multiplication using curve Ted 127 - glv 4 on 8-bit AVR, 16-bit MSP430, and 32-bit ARM processors. In Asiacrypt 2012, Longa and Sica introduced the four-dimensional GLV-GLS [...] Read more.
In this paper, we present the first constant-time implementations of four-dimensional Gallant–Lambert–Vanstone and Galbraith–Lin–Scott (GLV-GLS) scalar multiplication using curve Ted 127 - glv 4 on 8-bit AVR, 16-bit MSP430, and 32-bit ARM processors. In Asiacrypt 2012, Longa and Sica introduced the four-dimensional GLV-GLS scalar multiplication, and they reported the implementation results on Intel processors. However, they did not consider efficient implementations on resource-constrained embedded devices. We have optimized the performance of scalar multiplication using curve Ted 127 - glv 4 on 8-bit AVR, 16-bit MSP430, and 32-bit ARM processors. Our implementations compute a variable-base scalar multiplication in 6,856,026, 4,158,453, and 447,836 cycles on AVR, MSP430, and ARM Cortex-M4 processors, respectively. Recently, Four Q -based scalar multiplication has provided the fastest implementation results on AVR, MSP430, and ARM Cortex-M4 processors to date. Compared to Four Q -based scalar multiplication, the proposed implementations require 4.49% more computational cost on AVR, but save 2.85% and 4.61% cycles on MSP430 and ARM, respectively. Our 16-bit and 32-bit implementation results set new speed records for variable-base scalar multiplication. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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29 pages, 1264 KiB  
Article
An Integrated Cyber Security Risk Management Approach for a Cyber-Physical System
by Halima Ibrahim Kure, Shareeful Islam and Mohammad Abdur Razzaque
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(6), 898; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8060898 - 30 May 2018
Cited by 76 | Viewed by 24831
Abstract
A cyber-physical system (CPS) is a combination of physical system components with cyber capabilities that have a very tight interconnectivity. CPS is a widely used technology in many applications, including electric power systems, communications, and transportation, and healthcare systems. These are critical national [...] Read more.
A cyber-physical system (CPS) is a combination of physical system components with cyber capabilities that have a very tight interconnectivity. CPS is a widely used technology in many applications, including electric power systems, communications, and transportation, and healthcare systems. These are critical national infrastructures. Cybersecurity attack is one of the major threats for a CPS because of many reasons, including complexity and interdependencies among various system components, integration of communication, computing, and control technology. Cybersecurity attacks may lead to various risks affecting the critical infrastructure business continuity, including degradation of production and performance, unavailability of critical services, and violation of the regulation. Managing cybersecurity risks is very important to protect CPS. However, risk management is challenging due to the inherent complex and evolving nature of the CPS system and recent attack trends. This paper presents an integrated cybersecurity risk management framework to assess and manage the risks in a proactive manner. Our work follows the existing risk management practice and standard and considers risks from the stakeholder model, cyber, and physical system components along with their dependencies. The approach enables identification of critical CPS assets and assesses the impact of vulnerabilities that affect the assets. It also presents a cybersecurity attack scenario that incorporates a cascading effect of threats and vulnerabilities to the assets. The attack model helps to determine the appropriate risk levels and their corresponding mitigation process. We present a power grid system to illustrate the applicability of our work. The result suggests that risk in a CPS of a critical infrastructure depends mainly on cyber-physical attack scenarios and the context of the organization. The involved risks in the studied context are both from the technical and nontechnical aspects of the CPS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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13 pages, 2254 KiB  
Article
On the Robustness of No-Feedback Interdependent Networks
by Junde Wang, Songyang Lao, Shengjun Huang, Liang Bai and Lvlin Hou
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(5), 835; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8050835 - 21 May 2018
Viewed by 3042
Abstract
The continuous operation of modern society is dominated by interdependent networks, such as energy networks, communication networks, and traffic networks. As a result, the robustness of interdependent networks has become increasingly important in recent years. On the basis of past research, a no-feedback [...] Read more.
The continuous operation of modern society is dominated by interdependent networks, such as energy networks, communication networks, and traffic networks. As a result, the robustness of interdependent networks has become increasingly important in recent years. On the basis of past research, a no-feedback interdependent networks model is introduced. Compared with previous work, this model is more consistent with the characteristics of real interdependent systems. In addition, two types of failure modes, unilateral failure and bilateral failure, are defined. For each failure mode, the influence of coupling strength and dependency strength on the robustness of no-feedback interdependent networks was analyzed and discussed in relation to various giant component sizes. The simulation results indicated that the robustness of the no-feedback interdependent networks was inversely proportional to coupling strength and dependency strength, and the effect of coupling strength and dependency strength on the robustness was equivalent. These conclusions are beneficial for helping researchers and engineers to build more robust interdependent systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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17 pages, 1771 KiB  
Article
Vulnerability Assessment of Electrical Cyber-Physical Systems against Cyber Attacks
by Yinan Wang, Gangfeng Yan and Ronghao Zheng
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(5), 768; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8050768 - 11 May 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3276
Abstract
The integration of modern computing and advanced communication with power grids has led to the emergence of electrical cyber-physical systems (ECPSs). However, the massive application of communication technologies makes the power grids become more vulnerable to cyber attacks. In this paper, we study [...] Read more.
The integration of modern computing and advanced communication with power grids has led to the emergence of electrical cyber-physical systems (ECPSs). However, the massive application of communication technologies makes the power grids become more vulnerable to cyber attacks. In this paper, we study the vulnerability of ECPSs and develop defence strategies against cyber attacks. Detection and protection algorithms are proposed to deal with the emergency of cascading failures. Moreover, we propose a weight adjustment strategy to solve the unbalanced power flows problem which is caused by splitting incidents. A MATLAB-based platform with advantages of easy programming, fast calculation, and no damage to systems is built for the offline simulation and analysis of the vulnerability of ECPSs. We also propose a five-aspect method of vulnerability assessment which includes the robustness, economic costs, degree of damage, vulnerable equipment, and trip point. The study is of significance to decision makers as they can get specific advice and defence strategies about a special power system. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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19 pages, 4571 KiB  
Article
Improved Deep Belief Networks (IDBN) Dynamic Model-Based Detection and Mitigation for Targeted Attacks on Heavy-Duty Robots
by Lianpeng Li, Lun Xie, Weize Li, Zhenzong Liu and Zhiliang Wang
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(5), 676; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8050676 - 26 Apr 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3689
Abstract
In recent years, the robots, especially heavy-duty robots, have become the hardest-hit areas for targeted attacks. These attacks come from both the cyber-domain and the physical-domain. In order to improve the security of heavy-duty robots, this paper proposes a detection and mitigation mechanism [...] Read more.
In recent years, the robots, especially heavy-duty robots, have become the hardest-hit areas for targeted attacks. These attacks come from both the cyber-domain and the physical-domain. In order to improve the security of heavy-duty robots, this paper proposes a detection and mitigation mechanism which based on improved deep belief networks (IDBN) and dynamic model. The detection mechanism consists of two parts: (1) IDBN security checks, which can detect targeted attacks from the cyber-domain; (2) Dynamic model and security detection, used to detect the targeted attacks which can possibly lead to a physical-domain damage. The mitigation mechanism was established on the base of the detection mechanism and could mitigate transient and discontinuous attacks. Moreover, a test platform was established to carry out the performance evaluation test for the proposed mechanism. The results show that, the detection accuracy for the attack of the cyber-domain of IDBN reaches 96.2%, and the detection accuracy for the attack of physical-domain control commands reaches 94%. The performance evaluation test has verified the reliability and high efficiency of the proposed detection and mitigation mechanism for heavy-duty robots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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18 pages, 4663 KiB  
Article
Novel Guidance CPS Based on the FatBeacon Protocol
by Moisés Lodeiro-Santiago, Iván Santos-González, Cándido Caballero-Gil, Pino Caballero-Gil and Félix Herrera-Priano
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(4), 647; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8040647 - 20 Apr 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3606
Abstract
Throughout this work, the use of a new technology is proposed to give an innovative solution to the problem of indoor and outdoor positioning and a guidance system in areas where there is no coverage of Internet or global positioning systems. This novel [...] Read more.
Throughout this work, the use of a new technology is proposed to give an innovative solution to the problem of indoor and outdoor positioning and a guidance system in areas where there is no coverage of Internet or global positioning systems. This novel solution is based on the Bluetooth protocol called FatBeacon, created by Google, which can be used in places such as subway stations located below ground, outdoor areas where even 2G coverage is unreachable or simply as an alternative to current technologies that may require an additional cost, such as the Internet in some countries. In particular, this work describes a new solution for supporting tourism called Smart Tourism for which an interactive and non-intrusive guidance application based on the FatBeacon protocol is presented. The developed application informs the users about the way to reach their destination without getting lost and can be used to obtain user data tracking anonymously. In this way, the cooperation between the different systems and components of the scheme creates a distributed ecosystem that is independent of an Internet connection. Since no FatBeacon implementations can be found yet, an experimental implementation was developed to test the proposal, and the obtained results are promising. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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20 pages, 889 KiB  
Article
A Novel Network Security Risk Assessment Approach by Combining Subjective and Objective Weights under Uncertainty
by Yancui Duan, Yonghua Cai, Zhikang Wang and Xinyang Deng
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(3), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8030428 - 13 Mar 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4552
Abstract
Nowadays, computer networks are playing a more and more important role in people’s daily lives. Meanwhile, the security of computer networks has also attracted widespread concern. However, up to now, there is no universal and effective assessment approach for computer network security. Therefore, [...] Read more.
Nowadays, computer networks are playing a more and more important role in people’s daily lives. Meanwhile, the security of computer networks has also attracted widespread concern. However, up to now, there is no universal and effective assessment approach for computer network security. Therefore, a novel network security risk assessment approach by combining subjective and objective weights under uncertainty is proposed. In the proposed evaluation approach, the uncertainty of evaluation data is taken into account, which is translated into objective weights through an uncertainty measure. By combining the subjective weights of evaluation criteria and the objective weights of evaluation data, the final weights can be obtained. Then, Dempster–Shafer (D-S) evidence theory and pignistic probability transformation (PPT) are employed to derive a consensus decision for the degree of the network security risk. Two illustrative examples are given to show the efficiency of the proposed approach. This approach of risk assessment, which combines subjective and objective weights, can not only effectively evaluate computer network security, but also be widely used in decision-making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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Review

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24 pages, 3770 KiB  
Review
Issues, Challenges, and Research Opportunities in Intelligent Transport System for Security and Privacy
by Qazi Ejaz Ali, Naveed Ahmad, Abdul Haseeb Malik, Gauhar Ali and Waheed Ur Rehman
Appl. Sci. 2018, 8(10), 1964; https://doi.org/10.3390/app8101964 - 17 Oct 2018
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 7140
Abstract
Intelligent transport system (ITS), owing to their potential to enhance road safety and improve traffic management, have attracted attention from automotive industries and academia in recent years. The underlying technology—i.e., vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs)—provide a means for vehicles to intelligently exchange messages regarding [...] Read more.
Intelligent transport system (ITS), owing to their potential to enhance road safety and improve traffic management, have attracted attention from automotive industries and academia in recent years. The underlying technology—i.e., vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs)—provide a means for vehicles to intelligently exchange messages regarding road and traffic conditions to enhance safety. The open nature of ITS as wireless communication technology leads to many security and privacy challenges. These challenges pertain to confidentiality, authentication, integrity, non-repudiation, location privacy, identity privacy, anonymity, certificate revocation, and certificate resolution. This article aims to propose a novel taxonomy of security and privacy issues and solutions in ITS. Furthermore, categorization of security and privacy schemes in ITS and their limitations are discussed with various parameters—scalability, privacy, computational cost, communication overhead, latency—and various types of security attacks has been analyzed. This article leverages new researchers for challenges and opportunities related to security and privacy in ITS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Security and Privacy for Cyber Physical Systems)
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