Atmosphere

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15 pages, 781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Achieving Carbon Neutrality for A Future Large Greenhouse Gas Emitter in Quebec, Canada: A Case Study

by Patrick Faubert, Sylvie Bouchard, Rémi Morin Chassé, Hélène Côté, Pierre-Luc Dessureault and Claude Villeneuve

Atmosphere 2020, 11(8), 810; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11080810 - 31 Jul 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4282

Abstract

To reach the Paris Agreement targets of holding the global temperature increase below 2 °C above the preindustrial levels, every human activity will need to be carbon neutral by 2050. Feasible means for industries to achieve carbon neutrality must be developed and assessed [...] Read more.

To reach the Paris Agreement targets of holding the global temperature increase below 2 °C above the preindustrial levels, every human activity will need to be carbon neutral by 2050. Feasible means for industries to achieve carbon neutrality must be developed and assessed economically. Herein we present a case study on available solutions to achieve net-zero carbon from the get-go for a planned liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Quebec, which would classify as a large Canadian greenhouse gas (GHG) emitter. From a literature review, available options were prioritized with the promoter. Each prioritized potential solution is discussed in light of its feasibility and the associated economic opportunities and challenges. Although net-zero carbon is feasible from the get-go, results show that the promoter should identify opportunities to reduce as much as possible emissions at source, cooperate with other industries for CO₂ capture and utilization, replace natural gas from fossil sources by renewable sources and offset the remaining emissions by planting trees and/or buying offsets on the compliance and voluntary markets. As some of these solutions are still to be developed, to ensure timely net-zero pledge for the lifespan of the LNG plant, a portfolio and progressive approach to combine offsets and other options is preferable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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17 pages, 2902 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Energy Balances and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Agriculture in the Shihezi Oasis of China

by Zhengang Yan, Fuqin Hou and Fujiang Hou

Atmosphere 2020, 11(8), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11080781 - 24 Jul 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1938

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the difference of crop and livestock products regarding energy balances, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, carbon economic efficiency, and water use efficiency using a life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology on farms in three sub-oases within the [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the difference of crop and livestock products regarding energy balances, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, carbon economic efficiency, and water use efficiency using a life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology on farms in three sub-oases within the Shihezi Oasis of China. The three sub-oases were selected within the Gobi Desert, at Shizongchang (SZC), Xiayedi (XYD), and Mosuowan (MSW), to represent the various local oasis types: i. Oasis; ii. overlapping oasis-desert; and iii. Gobi oasis. The results indicated that crop production in XYD Oasis had higher energy balances (221.47 GJ/ha), and a net energy ratio (5.39), than in the other two oases (p < 0.01). The production of 1 kg CW of sheep in XYD Oasis resulted in significantly higher energy balances (18.31 MJ/kg CW), and an energy ratio (2.21), than in the other two oases (p < 0.01). The water use efficiency of crop production in the SZC Oasis was lower than that of the XYD and MSW oases (p < 0.05). Alfalfa production generated the lowest CO₂-eq emissions (8.09 Mg CO₂-eq/ha. year) and had the highest water use efficiency (45.82 MJ/m³). Alfalfa (1.18 ¥/kg CO₂-eq) and maize (1.14 ¥/kg CO₂-eq) had a higher carbon economic efficiency than other crops (p < 0.01). The main sources of GHG emissions for crop production were fertilizer and irrigation. The structural equation modelling (SEM) of agricultural systems in the Shihezi Oasis showed that the livestock category significantly influenced the economic income, energy, and carbon balances. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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19 pages, 1126 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationship of Energy and CO₂ Emissions with GDP per Capita in Colombia

by Lourdes Isabel Patiño, Emilio Padilla, Vicent Alcántara and Josep Lluís Raymond

Atmosphere 2020, 11(8), 778; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11080778 - 23 Jul 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3607

Abstract

We analyze the relationship of CO₂ emissions per capita and primary energy per capita with gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and other relevant variables in Colombia for the period 1971–2017. Two partial adjustment models are estimated through the seemingly unrelated regression [...] Read more.

We analyze the relationship of CO₂ emissions per capita and primary energy per capita with gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and other relevant variables in Colombia for the period 1971–2017. Two partial adjustment models are estimated through the seemingly unrelated regression equations method. There is a decrease in these environmental pressures during some years of the period. However, the results reject the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis and indicate that economic growth is still linked to an increase in these environmental pressures in Colombia. Moreover, a linear relationship between both indicators and GDP per capita is not rejected. Several factors explain the changes in energy consumption and emissions over time, the policies applied being crucial. Some determinants that helped to control these environmental pressures are the change in primary energy source composition, which entailed primary energy savings and a reduction in CO₂ emissions, as well as the regulations aimed at controlling CO₂ emissions from the transport and industrial sectors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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9 pages, 1090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectivity and Cost Efficiency of a Tax on Nitrogen Fertilizer to Reduce GHG Emissions from Agriculture

by Andreas Meyer-Aurich, Yusuf Nadi Karatay, Ausra Nausediene and Dieter Kirschke

Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060607 - 09 Jun 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3965

Abstract

The use of nitrogen (N) fertilizer substantially contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to N₂O emissions from agricultural soils and energy-intensive fertilizer manufacturing. Thus, a reduction of mineral N fertilizer use can contribute to reduced GHG emissions. Fertilizer tax is [...] Read more.

The use of nitrogen (N) fertilizer substantially contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to N₂O emissions from agricultural soils and energy-intensive fertilizer manufacturing. Thus, a reduction of mineral N fertilizer use can contribute to reduced GHG emissions. Fertilizer tax is a potential instrument to provide incentives to apply less fertilizer and contribute to the mitigation of GHG emissions. This study provides model results based on a production function analysis from field experiments in Brandenburg and Schleswig-Holstein, with respect to risk aversion by calculating certainty equivalents for different levels of risk aversion. The model results were used to identify effective and cost-efficient options considering farmers’ risk aversion to reduce N fertilizer, and to compare the potential and cost of GHG mitigation with different N fertilizer tax schemes. The results show that moderate N tax levels are effective in reducing N fertilizer levels, and thus, in curbing GHG emissions at costs below 100 €/t CO₂eq for rye, barley and canola. However, in wheat production, N tax has limited effects on economically optimal N use due to the effects of N fertilizer on crop quality, which affect the sale prices of wheat. The findings indicate that the level of risk aversion does not have a consistent impact on the reduction of N fertilizer with a tax, even though the level of N fertilizer use is generally lower for risk-averse agents. The differences in N fertilizer response might have an impact on the relative advantage of different crops, which should be taken into account for an effective implementation of a tax on N fertilizer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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18 pages, 1370 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Embodied CO₂ Emission Changes in Manufacturing Trade: Structural Decomposition Analysis of China, Japan, and Korea

by Young Yoon, Yoon-Kyung Kim and Jinsoo Kim

Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060597 - 04 Jun 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3373

Abstract

This study investigated the driving factors of embodied carbon emission changes in manufacturing trades through structural decomposition analysis. For empirical analysis, we developed an environmental multiregional input–output model for Korea, Japan, and China for 1995–2009. The three countries, which are economically and environmentally [...] Read more.

This study investigated the driving factors of embodied carbon emission changes in manufacturing trades through structural decomposition analysis. For empirical analysis, we developed an environmental multiregional input–output model for Korea, Japan, and China for 1995–2009. The three countries, which are economically and environmentally significant in Asia, are not only tightly linked economically through global value chains, but also close geographically, sharing various environmental issues. The results show that China is a net exporter of embodied carbon emissions to Japan and Korea, despite a substantial trade deficit. Its exports are more carbon-intensive than its imports from Japan and Korea. China’s embodied emissions were mainly affected by a change in carbon-intensive production and trade structure, and Japan’s and Korea’s were affected by China’s final demand. At the sectoral level, “Electrical and Optical Equipment”, “Basic Metals and Fabricated Metal”, and “Textiles and Textile Products” mainly affected the embodied carbon emission changes in these three countries. As a result, a considerable share of carbon-intensive production has shifted to China and increased consumption of China’s final products and services in the manufacturing industries, resulting in a significant increase in embodied carbon emissions. Additionally, our findings at the sectoral level could provide important evidence regarding the effective environmental policies that enable sustainable industries. With the increasing interest in the embodied carbon emissions, future research would pay more attention to the bilateral trades of major carbon-emitting countries and multilateral trades. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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14 pages, 1046 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Projected Direct Carbon Dioxide Emission Reductions as a Result of the Adoption of Electric Vehicles in Gauteng Province of South Africa

by Mokhele Edmond Moeletsi and Mphethe Isaac Tongwane

Atmosphere 2020, 11(6), 591; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11060591 - 04 Jun 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3332

Abstract

There are genuine worldwide concerns regarding the contribution of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Passenger electric vehicles (EVs) are considered as a viable solution to the rapidly increasing global GHG emissions from ICE vehicles. This study investigated the [...] Read more.

There are genuine worldwide concerns regarding the contribution of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Passenger electric vehicles (EVs) are considered as a viable solution to the rapidly increasing global GHG emissions from ICE vehicles. This study investigated the future impact of perceived adoption of electric vehicles in Gauteng Province of South Africa on carbon emissions. Estimations of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions were made with data from 2000 to 2018 to provide a reference period for the analysis. Projections of CO₂ emissions from 2020 to 2030 were undertaken using three future cases, namely: mitigation, business as usual, and high economic growth based on the projected 20% population of electric vehicles, and four scenarios representing varying proportions of different types of EVs. The results showed an increasingly significant trend in CO₂ emissions during the reference period. CO₂ emissions estimated using the mitigation case showed an overall reduction in emissions of between 30% and 35%, depending on the scenario. The business as usual case showed an increase in emissions of 1–5% by 2030. The high economic growth case showed a high increase in CO₂ emissions of 35–41% by 2030. The study indicates a need to accelerate the adoption of EVs with a 20% projection of the vehicle population still not enough to make a meaningful contribution towards decreasing CO₂ emissions from passenger vehicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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20 pages, 1017 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying the Economic Cost of Reducing GHG Emissions through Changes in Household Demand: A Linear Multi-Sectoral Approach for European Countries

by Alfredo J. Mainar-Causapé, Margarita I. Barrera-Lozano and Patricia D. Fuentes-Saguar

Atmosphere 2020, 11(5), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11050545 - 24 May 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2247

Abstract

The mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions can be approached in various ways: from the supply side, by using improvements in technologies and input uses; and from the changes in the demand for products, by influencing consumer behavior to achieve a more sustainable consumption [...] Read more.

The mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions can be approached in various ways: from the supply side, by using improvements in technologies and input uses; and from the changes in the demand for products, by influencing consumer behavior to achieve a more sustainable consumption pattern. Either way it can be approached using multi-sectoral data based on an input–output or on a Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) framework, although a suitable database and the proposal of appropriate indicators are needed. A suitable database is developed through the estimation of new SAMs for the latest possible period, that of year 2015. This paper focuses on the demand approach: that of changes in the demand for products. It analyzes the different impacts among activities and commodities of a change in domestic household consumption patterns, compares the potential reductions in Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions obtained through the reduction of specific demands, and considers the consequent reduction in output and employment. For this purpose, a linear multi-sectoral analysis is employed that focuses on the main EU member states. Despite major differences between countries, the results show that a decrease in emissions through demand-reduction policies exerts greater negative effects on those less polluting sectors with a higher intensity in the labor force, and offers a more suitable option for those highly polluting sectors with a lower concentration of the work factor. Richer countries that are based on service sectors therefore suffer a sharper drop in employment using this kind of policy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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10 pages, 301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Portfolio Policy Package to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

by John Freebairn

Atmosphere 2020, 11(4), 337; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos11040337 - 30 Mar 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2328

Abstract

Arguments for a portfolio of price, regulation and subsidy policy interventions to reduce the production and consumption of greenhouse gas emissions are presented. The operation and effects of each intervention are described and compared. A combination of different sets of market failures across [...] Read more.

Arguments for a portfolio of price, regulation and subsidy policy interventions to reduce the production and consumption of greenhouse gas emissions are presented. The operation and effects of each intervention are described and compared. A combination of different sets of market failures across the many potential decision changes available to producers and consumers to reduce emissions and different properties of the mitigation instruments support a portfolio approach to reduce emissions at a low cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greenhouse Gas Emission Mitigation: Feasibility and Economics)

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