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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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18 pages, 6797 KiB  
Article
Characteristic Prediction and Temperature-Control Strategy under Constant Power Conditions for Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Junfu Li, Shaochun Xu, Changsong Dai, Ming Zhao and Zhenbo Wang
Batteries 2022, 8(11), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110217 - 4 Nov 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2439
Abstract
Accurate characteristic prediction under constant power conditions can accurately evaluate the capacity of lithium-ion battery output. It can also ensure safe use for new-energy vehicles and electrochemical energy storage. As the battery voltage continues to drop under constant power conditions, the battery current [...] Read more.
Accurate characteristic prediction under constant power conditions can accurately evaluate the capacity of lithium-ion battery output. It can also ensure safe use for new-energy vehicles and electrochemical energy storage. As the battery voltage continues to drop under constant power conditions, the battery current output will accordingly increase, which brings a risk of thermal runaway in instances of weak heat dissipation. Therefore, knowing how to control the battery temperature is very critical for safe use. At present, the model-based method for characteristic prediction and temperature control has been used by most scholars, and that is also the key to this method. This work firstly extends a cell model to a pack-based electrochemical two-dimensional thermal coupling model, considering the heterogeneity of different cells inside the pack, and obtains the model parameters for a prismatic lithium-ion battery with a rated capacity of 42 Ah. Characteristic prediction under constant power conditions is then conducted based on an iterative solution method. Validations of characteristic prediction indicate the convenience of the developed models, with average absolute errors of voltage and temperature less than 36 mV and 0.4 K, respectively, and power error less than 0.005%. Finally, two model-based temperature feed-forward control strategies with lower cooling costs and shorter prediction times were developed based on the battery characteristic predictions, which leaves room for further controller development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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12 pages, 2597 KiB  
Article
“In Situ” Formation of Zn Anode from Bimetallic Cu-Zn Alloy (Brass) for Dendrite-Free Operation of Zn-Air Rechargeable Battery
by Tibor Nagy, Lajos Nagy, Zoltán Erdélyi, Eszter Baradács, György Deák, Miklós Zsuga and Sándor Kéki
Batteries 2022, 8(11), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110212 - 3 Nov 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3128
Abstract
In this article, the performance of brass electrode was investigated in a Zn-air (charcoal-based cathode) rechargeable battery. The construction of the battery was carried out with biodegradable materials, namely a cotton cloth diaphragm and carboxymethyl cellulose sodium salt (CMC-Na) viscosity modifier, while the [...] Read more.
In this article, the performance of brass electrode was investigated in a Zn-air (charcoal-based cathode) rechargeable battery. The construction of the battery was carried out with biodegradable materials, namely a cotton cloth diaphragm and carboxymethyl cellulose sodium salt (CMC-Na) viscosity modifier, while the battery skeleton was printed by 3D printing technology. The brass acted as a collector and a preferable surface for the metallic Zn deposition on the brass anode surface. The electrochemical behavior of the brass anode was investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CV). Cyclic performance tests were carried out, which showed stable cell operation even in the presence or absence of additives up to more than 100 cycles. Furthermore, high energy (Eeff) and Coulomb (Ceff) efficiencies, 80% (Eeff), 95% (Ceff), 75% (Eeff), and 95% (Ceff) were obtained, respectively. The Shepherd model was applied to describe the discharging processes of the Zn-air battery containing brass as anode in the presence of additive-free electrolyte or electrolyte with CMC-Na salt additive. It was found that the Shepherd equation described only approximately the resulting discharge curves. In order to attain a more precise mathematical description, stretched exponential function was implemented into the last term of the Shepherd equation. The need for such a correction shows the complexity of the electrochemical processes occurring in these systems. In addition, the surface of the brass anode was also investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the composition of the brass alloys was determined by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). Importantly, the formation of dendritic deposition was successfully suppressed and a smooth and uniform surface was obtained after the cycling tests. Full article
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17 pages, 2930 KiB  
Article
Effects of Excessive Prelithiation on Full-Cell Performance of Li-Ion Batteries with a Hard-Carbon/Nanosized-Si Composite Anode
by Yusuke Abe, Ippei Saito, Masahiro Tomioka, Mahmudul Kabir and Seiji Kumagai
Batteries 2022, 8(11), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110210 - 2 Nov 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3261
Abstract
The effects of excessive prelithiation on the full-cell performance of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) with a hard-carbon/nanosized-Si (HC/N-Si) composite anode were investigated; HC and N-Si simply mixed at mass ratios of 9:1 and 8:2 were analyzed. CR2032-type half- and full-cells were assembled to evaluate [...] Read more.
The effects of excessive prelithiation on the full-cell performance of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) with a hard-carbon/nanosized-Si (HC/N-Si) composite anode were investigated; HC and N-Si simply mixed at mass ratios of 9:1 and 8:2 were analyzed. CR2032-type half- and full-cells were assembled to evaluate the electrochemical LIB anode behavior. The galvanostatic measurements of half-cell configurations revealed that the composite anode with an 8:2 HC/N-Si mass ratio exhibited a high capacity (531 mAh g−1) at 0.1 C and superior current-rate dependence (rate performance) at 0.1–10 C. To evaluate the practical LIB anode performance, the optimally performing composite anode was used in the full cell. Prior to full-cell assembly, the composite anodes were prelithiated via electrochemical Li doping at different cutoff anodic specific capacities (200–600 mAh g−1). The composite anode was paired with a LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode to construct full-cells, the performance of which was evaluated by conducting sequential rate and cycling performance tests. Prelithiation affected only the cycling performance, without affecting the rate performance. Excellent capacity retention was observed in the full-cells with prelithiation conducted at cutoff anodic specific capacities greater than or equal to 500 mAh g−1. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers to Celebrate the First Impact Factor of Batteries)
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18 pages, 6508 KiB  
Article
Physics-Based SoH Estimation for Li-Ion Cells
by Pietro Iurilli, Claudio Brivio, Rafael E. Carrillo and Vanessa Wood
Batteries 2022, 8(11), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110204 - 1 Nov 2022
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5778
Abstract
Accurate state of health (SoH) estimation is crucial to optimize the lifetime of Li-ion cells while ensuring safety during operations. This work introduces a methodology to track Li-ion cells degradation and estimate SoH based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. Distribution of relaxation [...] Read more.
Accurate state of health (SoH) estimation is crucial to optimize the lifetime of Li-ion cells while ensuring safety during operations. This work introduces a methodology to track Li-ion cells degradation and estimate SoH based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. Distribution of relaxation times (DRT) were exploited to derive indicators linked to the so-called degradation modes (DMs), which group the different aging mechanisms. The combination of these indicators was used to model the aging progression over the whole lifetime (both in the “pre-knee” and “after-knee” regions), enabling a physics-based SoH estimation. The methodology was applied to commercial cylindrical cells (NMC811|Graphite SiOx). The results showed that loss of lithium inventory (LLI) is the main driving factor for cell degradation, followed by loss of cathode active material (LAMC). SoH estimation was achievable with a mean absolute error lower than 0.75% for SoH values higher than 85% and lower than 3.70% SoH values between 85% and 80% (end of life). The analyses of the results will allow for guidelines to be defined to replicate the presented methodology, characterize new Li-ion cell types, and perform onboard SoH estimation in battery management system (BMS) solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Recent Advances in Battery Management Systems)
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33 pages, 7304 KiB  
Review
Review of the Research Status of Cost-Effective Zinc–Iron Redox Flow Batteries
by Huan Zhang, Chuanyu Sun and Mingming Ge
Batteries 2022, 8(11), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8110202 - 31 Oct 2022
Cited by 48 | Viewed by 8013
Abstract
Zinc–iron redox flow batteries (ZIRFBs) possess intrinsic safety and stability and have been the research focus of electrochemical energy storage technology due to their low electrolyte cost. This review introduces the characteristics of ZIRFBs which can be operated within a wide pH range, [...] Read more.
Zinc–iron redox flow batteries (ZIRFBs) possess intrinsic safety and stability and have been the research focus of electrochemical energy storage technology due to their low electrolyte cost. This review introduces the characteristics of ZIRFBs which can be operated within a wide pH range, including the acidic ZIRFB taking advantage of Fen+ with high solubility, the alkaline ZIRFB operating at a relatively high open-circuit potential and current densities, and the neutral ZIRFB providing a non-toxic, harmless, and mild environment. No matter what kind of ZIRFB, there are always zinc dendrites limiting areal capacity on the anode, which has become an obstacle that must be considered in zinc-based RFBs. Therefore, we focus on the current research progress, especially the summarizing and analysis of zinc dendrites, Fe(III) hydrolysis, and electrolytes. Given these challenges, this review reports the optimization of the electrolyte, electrode, membrane/separator, battery structure, and numerical simulations, aiming to promote the performance and development of ZIRFBs as a practical application technology. Based on these investigations, we also provide the prospects and development direction of ZIRFBs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries: Recent Advances and Perspectives)
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19 pages, 1972 KiB  
Review
Examining the Benefits of Using Boron Compounds in Lithium Batteries: A Comprehensive Review of Literature
by Changlin (Allen) Zheng
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 187; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100187 - 17 Oct 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 10308
Abstract
Boron and boron compounds have been extensively studied together in the history and development of lithium batteries, which are crucial to decarbonization in the automotive industry and beyond. With a wide examination of battery components, but a boron-centric approach to raw materials, this [...] Read more.
Boron and boron compounds have been extensively studied together in the history and development of lithium batteries, which are crucial to decarbonization in the automotive industry and beyond. With a wide examination of battery components, but a boron-centric approach to raw materials, this review attempts to summarize past and recent studies on the following: which boron compounds are studied in a lithium battery, in which parts of lithium batteries are they studied, what improvements are offered for battery performance, and what improvement mechanisms can be explained. The uniqueness of boron and its extensive application beyond batteries contextualizes the interesting similarity with some studies on batteries. At the end, the article aims to predict prospective trends for future studies that may lead to a more extensive use of boron compounds on a commercial scale. Full article
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13 pages, 2512 KiB  
Article
Time-Dependent Behavior of Waste Lithium-Ion Batteries in Secondary Copper Smelting
by Anna Klemettinen, Lassi Klemettinen, Radosław Michallik, Hugh O’Brien and Ari Jokilaakso
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 190; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100190 - 17 Oct 2022
Viewed by 2165
Abstract
As the electrification sector expands rapidly, the demand for metals used in batteries is increasing significantly. New approaches for lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling have to be investigated and new technologies developed in order to secure the future supply of battery metals (i.e., lithium, [...] Read more.
As the electrification sector expands rapidly, the demand for metals used in batteries is increasing significantly. New approaches for lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling have to be investigated and new technologies developed in order to secure the future supply of battery metals (i.e., lithium, cobalt, nickel). In this work, the possibility of integrating LIB recycling with secondary copper smelting was further investigated. The time-dependent behavior of battery metals (Li, Co, Ni, Mn) in simulated secondary copper smelting conditions was investigated for the first time. In the study, copper alloy was used as a medium for collecting valuable metals and the distribution coefficients of these metals between copper alloy and slag were used for evaluating the recycling efficiencies. The determined distribution coefficients follow the order Ni >> Co >> Mn > Li throughout the time range investigated. In our study, the evolution of phases and their chemical composition were investigated in laboratory-scale experiments under reducing conditions of oxygen partial pressure p(O2) = 10−10 atm, at 1300 °C. The results showed that already after 1 h holding time, the major elements were in equilibrium. However, based on the microstructural observations and trace elements distributions, the required full equilibration time for the system was determined to be 16 h. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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13 pages, 2566 KiB  
Article
Repurposing Face Masks after Use: From Wastes to Anode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries
by Silvia Porporato, Mattia Bartoli, Alessandro Piovano, Nicolò Pianta, Alberto Tagliaferro, Giuseppe Antonio Elia, Riccardo Ruffo and Claudio Gerbaldi
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 183; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100183 - 14 Oct 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3167
Abstract
Nowadays, face masks play an essential role in limiting coronavirus diffusion. However, their disposable nature represents a relevant environmental issue. In this work, we propose the utilization of two types of disposed (waste) face masks to prepare hard carbons (biochar) by pyrolytic conversion [...] Read more.
Nowadays, face masks play an essential role in limiting coronavirus diffusion. However, their disposable nature represents a relevant environmental issue. In this work, we propose the utilization of two types of disposed (waste) face masks to prepare hard carbons (biochar) by pyrolytic conversion in mild conditions. Moreover, we evaluated the application of the produced hard carbons as anode materials in Na-ion batteries. Pristine face masks were firstly analyzed through infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. The pyrolysis of both mask types resulted in highly disordered carbons, as revealed by field-emission scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy, with a very low specific surface area. Anodes prepared with these carbons were tested in laboratory-scale Na-metal cells through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry and galvanostatic cycling, displaying an acceptable specific capacity along a wide range of current regimes, with a good coulombic efficiency (>98% over at least 750 cycles). As a proof of concept, the anodes were also used to assemble a Na-ion cell in combination with a Na3V2(PO4)2F3 (NVPF) cathode and tested towards galvanostatic cycling, with an initial capacity of almost 120 mAhg−1 (decreasing at about 47 mAhg−1 after 50 cycles). Even though further optimization is required for a real application, the achieved electrochemical performances represent a preliminary confirmation of the possibility of repurposing disposable face masks into higher-value materials for Na-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers to Celebrate the First Impact Factor of Batteries)
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20 pages, 5682 KiB  
Article
Simulation, Set-Up, and Thermal Characterization of a Water-Cooled Li-Ion Battery System
by Max Feinauer, Nils Uhlmann, Carlos Ziebert and Thomas Blank
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100177 - 12 Oct 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4760
Abstract
A constant and homogenous temperature control of Li-ion batteries is essential for a good performance, a safe operation, and a low aging rate. Especially when operating a battery with high loads in dense battery systems, a cooling system is required to keep the [...] Read more.
A constant and homogenous temperature control of Li-ion batteries is essential for a good performance, a safe operation, and a low aging rate. Especially when operating a battery with high loads in dense battery systems, a cooling system is required to keep the cell in a controlled temperature range. Therefore, an existing battery module is set up with a water-based liquid cooling system with aluminum cooling plates. A finite-element simulation is used to optimize the design and arrangement of the cooling plates regarding power consumption, cooling efficiency, and temperature homogeneity. The heat generation of an operating Li-ion battery is described by the lumped battery model, which is integrated into COMSOL Multiphysics. As the results show, a small set of non-destructively determined parameters of the lumped battery model is sufficient to estimate heat generation. The simulated temperature distribution within the battery pack confirmed adequate cooling and good temperature homogeneity as measured by an integrated temperature sensor array. Furthermore, the simulation reveals sufficient cooling of the batteries by using only one cooling plate per two pouch cells while continuously discharging at up to 3 C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal, and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells II)
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34 pages, 7117 KiB  
Article
Thermal Modelling Utilizing Multiple Experimentally Measurable Parameters
by Anosh Mevawalla, Yasmin Shabeer, Manh Kien Tran, Satyam Panchal, Michael Fowler and Roydon Fraser
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100147 - 29 Sep 2022
Cited by 66 | Viewed by 5074
Abstract
This paper presents three equivalent thermal circuit models with multiple input parameters, namely, the state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC), current and temperature. Typical physiochemical models include parameters such as porosity and tortuosity, which are not easily experimentally available; this model [...] Read more.
This paper presents three equivalent thermal circuit models with multiple input parameters, namely, the state of health (SOH), state of charge (SOC), current and temperature. Typical physiochemical models include parameters such as porosity and tortuosity, which are not easily experimentally available; this model allows for model parameters such as the internal impedance to be easily estimated using more practical inputs. The paper models the internal impedance resistance of a LiFePO4 battery at five different ambient temperatures (5, 15, 25, 35, 45 °C), at three different discharge rates (1C, 2C, 3C) and at three different SOHs (90%, 83%, 65%). The internal impedance surface fit experimental measurements with a Pearson coefficient of 0.945. Three thermal models were then created that implemented the internal resistance model. The first two thermal models were 0D models that did not include the influence of the thermal conductivity of the battery. The first model assumed simple heating through internal resistance and convection energy loss, while the second also included the Bernardi Reversible heat term. The final third model was a 2D model that included all previous heat source terms as well as tab heating. The 2D model was solved using a simple Euler method and finite center difference. The R2 values for the 0D thermal models were 0.9964 and 0.9962 for the simple internal resistance and reversible heating models, respectively. The R2 value for the 2D thermal model was 0.996. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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15 pages, 6795 KiB  
Article
A Unified Power Converter for Solar PV and Energy Storage in dc Microgrids
by Sergio Coelho, Vitor Monteiro, Tiago J. C. Sousa, Luis A. M. Barros, Delfim Pedrosa, Carlos Couto and Joao L. Afonso
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100143 - 25 Sep 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3142
Abstract
This paper deals with the development and experimental validation of a unified power converter for application in dc microgrids, contemplating the inclusion of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and energy storage systems (ESS), namely batteries. Considering the limitations presented by the current structure of [...] Read more.
This paper deals with the development and experimental validation of a unified power converter for application in dc microgrids, contemplating the inclusion of solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and energy storage systems (ESS), namely batteries. Considering the limitations presented by the current structure of the power grid, mostly highlighted by the accentuated integration of emerging technologies (ESS, renewables, electric vehicles, and electrical appliances that natively operate in dc), it is extremely pertinent to adopt new topologies, architectures, and paradigms. In particular, decentralized power systems, unified topologies, and correspondent control algorithms are representative of a new trend towards a reduction in the number of power converters. Thus, the developed solution is designed to operaSAVE-15te at a nominal power of 3.6 kW, with a switching frequency of 100 kHz, and in four operation modes concerning power flow: (i) solar PV panels to batteries (PV2B); (ii) solar PV panels to dc grid (PV2G); (iii) batteries to dc grid (B2G); (iv) dc grid to batteries (G2B). Moreover, a dual active bridge converter guarantees galvanic isolation, while two back-end dc–dc converters are responsible for interfacing solar PV panels and batteries. The experimental validation of the proposed unified power converter proves its application value to self-consumption production units. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Battery Energy Storage and Applications)
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19 pages, 2093 KiB  
Article
Organic Rankine Cycle as the Waste Heat Recovery Unit of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell: A Novel System Design for the Electric Vehicle Charging Stations Using Batteries as a Backup/Storage Unit
by Hossein Pourrahmani, Chengzhang Xu and Jan Van herle
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100138 - 22 Sep 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3140
Abstract
The novelty of this study is to suggest a novel design for electric vehicle charging stations using fuel cell technology. The proposed system benefits from the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) to utilize the exhaust energy of the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) stacks [...] Read more.
The novelty of this study is to suggest a novel design for electric vehicle charging stations using fuel cell technology. The proposed system benefits from the Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) to utilize the exhaust energy of the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) stacks in addition to the Lithium-Ion battery to improve the efficiency by partial-load operation of the stacks at night. The study is supported by the thermodynamic analysis to obtain the characteristics of the system in each state point. To analyze the operation of the system during the partial-load operation, the dynamic performance of the system was developed during the day. Furthermore, the environmental impacts of the system were evaluated considering eighteen parameters using a life-cycle assessment (LCA). LCA results also revealed the effects of different fuels and working fluids for the SOFC stacks and ORC, respectively. Results show that the combination of SOFC and ORC units can generate 264.02 kWh with the respective overall energy and exergy efficiencies of 48.96% and 48.51%. The suggested 264.02 kWh contributes to global warming (kg CO2 eq) by 5.17 × 105, 8.36 × 104, 2.5 × 105, 1.98 × 105, and 6.79 × 104 using methane, bio-methanol, natural gas, biogas, and hydrogen as the fuel of the SOFC stacks. Full article
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12 pages, 3260 KiB  
Review
Redox Evolution of Li-Rich Layered Cathode Materials
by Liang Fang, Mingzhe Chen, Kyung-Wan Nam and Yong-Mook Kang
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100132 - 21 Sep 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5064
Abstract
Li-rich layered oxides utilizing reversible oxygen redox are promising cathodes for high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries. However, they exhibit different electrochemical profiles before and after oxygen redox activation. Therefore, advanced characterization techniques have been developed to explore the fundamental understanding underlying their unusual phenomenon, such [...] Read more.
Li-rich layered oxides utilizing reversible oxygen redox are promising cathodes for high-energy-density lithium-ion batteries. However, they exhibit different electrochemical profiles before and after oxygen redox activation. Therefore, advanced characterization techniques have been developed to explore the fundamental understanding underlying their unusual phenomenon, such as the redox evolution of these materials. In this review, we present the general redox evolution of Li-rich layered cathodes upon activation of reversible oxygen redox. Various synchrotron X-ray spectroscopy methods which can identify charge compensation by cations and anions are summarized. The case-by-case redox evolution processes of Li-rich 3d/4d/5d transition metal O3 type layered cathodes are discussed. We highlight that not only the type of transition metals but also the composition of transition metals strongly affects redox behavior. We propose further studies on the fundamental understanding of cationic and anionic redox mixing and the effect of transition metals on redox behavior to excite the full energy potential of Li-rich layered cathodes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Materials and Interfaces: Anode, Cathode, Separators and Electrolytes or Others)
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17 pages, 11524 KiB  
Article
Understanding Voltage Behavior of Lithium-Ion Batteries in Electric Vehicles Applications
by Foad H. Gandoman, Adel El-Shahat, Zuhair M. Alaas, Ziad M. Ali, Maitane Berecibar and Shady H. E. Abdel Aleem
Batteries 2022, 8(10), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8100130 - 20 Sep 2022
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 7404
Abstract
Electric vehicle (EV) markets have evolved. In this regard, rechargeable batteries such as lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries become critical in EV applications. However, the nonlinear features of Li-ion batteries make their performance over their lifetime, reliability, and control more difficult. In this regard, the [...] Read more.
Electric vehicle (EV) markets have evolved. In this regard, rechargeable batteries such as lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries become critical in EV applications. However, the nonlinear features of Li-ion batteries make their performance over their lifetime, reliability, and control more difficult. In this regard, the battery management system (BMS) is crucial for monitoring, handling, and improving the lifespan and reliability of this type of battery from cell to pack levels, particularly in EV applications. Accordingly, the BMS should control and monitor the voltage, current, and temperature of the battery system during the lifespan of the battery. In this article, the BMS definition, state of health (SoH) and state of charge (SoC) methods, and battery fault detection methods were investigated as crucial aspects of the control strategy of Li-ion batteries for assessing and improving the reliability of the system. Moreover, for a clear understanding of the voltage behavior of the battery, the open-circuit voltage (OCV) at three ambient temperatures, 10 °C, 25 °C, and 45 °C, and three different SoC levels, 80%, 50%, and 20%, were investigated. The results obtained showed that altering the ambient temperature impacts the OCV variations of the battery. For instance, by increasing the temperature, the voltage fluctuation at 45 °C at low SoC of 50% and 20% was more significant than in the other conditions. In contrast, the rate of the OCV at different SoC in low and high temperatures was more stable. Full article
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18 pages, 2468 KiB  
Article
A Novel Experimental Technique for Use in Fast Parameterisation of Equivalent Circuit Models for Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Mohammad Amin Samieian, Alastair Hales and Yatish Patel
Batteries 2022, 8(9), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090125 - 13 Sep 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3695
Abstract
Battery models are one of the most important tools for understanding the behaviour of batteries. This is particularly important for the fast-moving electrical vehicle industry, where new battery chemistries are continually being developed. The main limiting factor on how fast battery models can [...] Read more.
Battery models are one of the most important tools for understanding the behaviour of batteries. This is particularly important for the fast-moving electrical vehicle industry, where new battery chemistries are continually being developed. The main limiting factor on how fast battery models can be developed is the experimental technique used for collection of data required for model parametrisation. Currently, this is a very time-consuming process. In this paper, a fast novel parametrisation testing technique is presented. A model is then parametrised using this testing technique and compared to a model parametrised using current common testing techniques. This comparison is conducted using a WLTP (worldwide harmonised light vehicle test procedure) drive cycle. As part of the validation, the experiments were conducted at different temperatures and repeated using two different temperature control methods: climate chamber and a Peltier element temperature control method. The new technique introduced in this paper, named AMPP (accelerated model parametrisation procedure), is as good as GITT (galvanostatic intermittent titration technique) for parametrisation of ECMs (equivalent circuit models); however, it is 90% faster. When using experimental data from a climate chamber, a model parametrised using GITT was marginally better than AMPP; however, when using experimental data using conductive control, such as the ICP (isothermal control platform), a model parametrised using AMPP performed as well as GITT at 25 °C and better than GITT at 10 °C. Full article
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23 pages, 32545 KiB  
Review
Toward Dendrite-Free Deposition in Zinc-Based Flow Batteries: Status and Prospects
by Zeyu Xu and Maochun Wu
Batteries 2022, 8(9), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8090117 - 6 Sep 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 8089
Abstract
Safe and low-cost zinc-based flow batteries offer great promise for grid-scale energy storage, which is the key to the widespread adoption of renewable energies. However, advancement in this technology is considerably hindered by the notorious zinc dendrite formation that results in low Coulombic [...] Read more.
Safe and low-cost zinc-based flow batteries offer great promise for grid-scale energy storage, which is the key to the widespread adoption of renewable energies. However, advancement in this technology is considerably hindered by the notorious zinc dendrite formation that results in low Coulombic efficiencies, fast capacity decay, and even short circuits. In this review, we first discuss the fundamental mechanisms of zinc dendrite formation and identify the key factors affecting zinc deposition. Then, strategies to regulate zinc deposition are clarified and discussed based on electrode, electrolyte, and membrane. The underlying mechanisms, advantages, and shortcomings of each strategy are elaborated. Finally, the remaining challenges and perspectives of zinc-based flow batteries are presented. The review may provide promising directions for the development of dendrite-free zinc-based flow batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries: Recent Advances and Perspectives)
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26 pages, 11094 KiB  
Review
Echelon Utilization of Retired Power Lithium-Ion Batteries: Challenges and Prospects
by Ningbo Wang, Akhil Garg, Shaosen Su, Jianhui Mou, Liang Gao and Wei Li
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080096 - 18 Aug 2022
Cited by 45 | Viewed by 5865
Abstract
The explosion of electric vehicles (EVs) has triggered massive growth in power lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The primary issue that follows is how to dispose of such large-scale retired LIBs. The echelon utilization of retired LIBs is gradually occupying a research hotspot. Solving the [...] Read more.
The explosion of electric vehicles (EVs) has triggered massive growth in power lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). The primary issue that follows is how to dispose of such large-scale retired LIBs. The echelon utilization of retired LIBs is gradually occupying a research hotspot. Solving the issue of echelon utilization of large-scale retired power LIBs brings not only huge economic but also produces rich environmental benefits. This study systematically examines the current challenges of the cascade utilization of retired power LIBs and prospectively points out broad prospects. Firstly, the treatments of retired power LIBs are introduced, and the performance evaluation methods and sorting and regrouping methods of retired power LIBs are comprehensively reviewed for echelon utilization. Then, the problems faced by the scenario planning and economic research of the echelon utilization of retired power LIBs are analyzed, and value propositions are put forward. Secondly, this study summarizes the technical challenges faced by echelon utilization in terms of security, performance evaluation methods, supply and demand chain construction, regulations, and certifications. Finally, the future research prospects of echelon utilization are discussed. In the foreseeable future, technologies such as standardization, cloud technology, and blockchain are urgently needed to maximize the industrialization of the echelon utilization of retired power LIBs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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18 pages, 2857 KiB  
Article
Effects of Cell Design Parameters on Zinc-Air Battery Performance
by Cian-Tong Lu, Zhi-Yan Zhu, Sheng-Wen Chen, Yu-Ling Chang and Kan-Lin Hsueh
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 92; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080092 - 15 Aug 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5166
Abstract
Zn-air batteries have attracted considerable attention from researchers owing to their high theoretical energy density and the abundance of zinc on Earth. The modification of battery component materials represent a common approach to improve battery performance. The effects of cell design on cell [...] Read more.
Zn-air batteries have attracted considerable attention from researchers owing to their high theoretical energy density and the abundance of zinc on Earth. The modification of battery component materials represent a common approach to improve battery performance. The effects of cell design on cell performance are seldom investigated. In this study, we designed four battery structures as follows. Cell 1: close-proximity electrode, Cell 2: equal-area electrode, Cell 3: large zinc electrode, and Cell 4: air channel flow. The effects of four factors: (1) carbon paste, (2) natural and forced air convection, (3) anode/cathode area ratio, and (4) anode–cathode distance were also investigated. Results showed that the addition of carbon paste on the air side of 25BC increased cell power density under forced air convection. Moreover, cell performance also improved by increasing the anode/cathode ratio and by decreasing the anode–cathode distance. These four types of cells were compared based on the oxygen reduction reaction electrode area. Cell 3 displayed the highest power density. In terms of volumetric power density, the proximity cell (Cell 1) exhibited the highest power density among the cells. Therefore, this cell configuration may be suitable for portable applications. Full article
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20 pages, 2663 KiB  
Article
Parameter Identification Method for a Fractional-Order Model of Lithium-Ion Batteries Considering Electrolyte-Phase Diffusion
by Yanbo Jia, Lei Dong, Geng Yang, Feng Jin, Languang Lu, Dongxu Guo and Minggao Ouyang
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 90; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080090 - 14 Aug 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3222
Abstract
The physics-based fractional-order model (FOM) for lithium-ion batteries has shown good application prospects due to its mechanisms and simplicity. To adapt the model to higher-level applications, this paper proposes an improved FOM considering electrolyte-phase diffusion (FOMe) and then proposes a complete method for [...] Read more.
The physics-based fractional-order model (FOM) for lithium-ion batteries has shown good application prospects due to its mechanisms and simplicity. To adapt the model to higher-level applications, this paper proposes an improved FOM considering electrolyte-phase diffusion (FOMe) and then proposes a complete method for parameter identification based on three characteristic SOC intervals: the positive solid phase, negative solid phase, and electrolyte phase. The method mainly determines the above three characteristic intervals and identifies four thermodynamic parameters and five dynamic parameters. Furthermore, the paper describes a framework, which first verifies the model and parameter identification method separately based on pseudo two-dimensional model simulations, and secondly verifies FOMe and its parameters as a whole based on the experiments. The results, which are based on simulations and actual Li0.8Co0.1Mn0.1O2 lithium-ion batteries under multiple typical operating profiles and comparisons with other parameter identification methods, show that the proposed model and parameter identification method is highly accurate and efficient. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Modelling, Simulation, Management and Application)
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15 pages, 4712 KiB  
Article
A Novel Evaluation Criterion for the Rapid Estimation of the Overcharge and Deep Discharge of Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Differential Capacity
by Peter Kurzweil, Bernhard Frenzel and Wolfgang Scheuerpflug
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080086 - 9 Aug 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3674
Abstract
Differential capacity dQ/dU (capacitance) can be used for the instant diagnosis of battery performance in common constant current applications. A novel criterion allows state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) monitoring of lithium-ion batteries during cycling. Peak values indicate impeding overcharge or [...] Read more.
Differential capacity dQ/dU (capacitance) can be used for the instant diagnosis of battery performance in common constant current applications. A novel criterion allows state-of-charge (SOC) and state-of-health (SOH) monitoring of lithium-ion batteries during cycling. Peak values indicate impeding overcharge or deep discharge, while dSOC/dU = dU/dSOC = 1 is close to “full charge” or “empty” and can be used as a marker for SOC = 1 (and SOC = 0) at the instantaneous SOH of the aging battery. Instructions for simple state-of-charge control and fault diagnosis are given. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence-Based State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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11 pages, 2266 KiB  
Article
Multi-Functional Potassium Ion Assists Ammonium Vanadium Oxide Cathode for High-Performance Aqueous Zinc-Ion Batteries
by Dan He, Tianjiang Sun, Qiaoran Wang, Tao Ma, Shibing Zheng, Zhanliang Tao and Jing Liang
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080084 - 8 Aug 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3426
Abstract
Ammonium vanadium oxide (NH4V4O10) is a promising layered cathode for aqueous zinc-ion batteries owing to its high specific capacity (>300 mA h g−1). However, the structural instability causes serious cycling degradation through irreversible insertion/extraction of [...] Read more.
Ammonium vanadium oxide (NH4V4O10) is a promising layered cathode for aqueous zinc-ion batteries owing to its high specific capacity (>300 mA h g−1). However, the structural instability causes serious cycling degradation through irreversible insertion/extraction of NH4+. Herein, a new potassium ammonium vanadate Kx(NH4)1−xV4O10 (named KNVO) is successfully synthesized by a one-step hydrothermal method. The inserted of K+ can act as structural pillars, connect the adjacent layers closer and partially reduce the de-insertion of NH4+. Due to the multi-functional of K+, the prepared KNVO presents a high specific discharge capacity of 432 mA h g−1 at a current density of 0.4 A g−1, long cycle stability (2000 cycles, 94.2%) as well as impressive rate performance (200 mA h g−1 at 8 A g−1). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zn-Ion and Zn–Air Batteries: Materials, Mechanisms and Applications)
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18 pages, 2664 KiB  
Article
Influence of the Ambient Storage of LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 Powder and Electrodes on the Electrochemical Performance in Li-ion Technology
by Iratxe de Meatza, Imanol Landa-Medrano, Susan Sananes-Israel, Aitor Eguia-Barrio, Oleksandr Bondarchuk, Silvia Lijó-Pando, Iker Boyano, Verónica Palomares, Teófilo Rojo, Hans-Jürgen Grande and Idoia Urdampilleta
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080079 - 28 Jul 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4889
Abstract
Nickel-rich LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) is one of the most promising Li-ion battery cathode materials and has attracted the interest of the automotive industry. Nevertheless, storage conditions can affect its properties and performance. In this work, both NMC811 [...] Read more.
Nickel-rich LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (NMC811) is one of the most promising Li-ion battery cathode materials and has attracted the interest of the automotive industry. Nevertheless, storage conditions can affect its properties and performance. In this work, both NMC811 powder and electrodes were storage-aged for one year under room conditions. The aged powder was used to prepare electrodes, and the performance of these two aged samples was compared with reference fresh NMC811 electrodes in full Li-ion coin cells using graphite as a negative electrode. The cells were subjected to electrochemical as well as ante- and postmortem characterization. The performance of the electrodes from aged NM811 was beyond expectations: the cycling performance was high, and the power capability was the highest among the samples analyzed. Materials characterization revealed modifications in the crystal structure and the surface layer of the NMC811 during the storage and electrode processing steps. Differences between aged and fresh electrodes were explained by the formation of a resistive layer at the surface of the former. However, the ageing of NMC811 powder was significantly mitigated during the electrode processing step. These novel results are of interest to cell manufacturers for the widespread implementation of NMC811 as a state-of-the-art cathode material in Li-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries Aging Mechanisms, 2nd Edition)
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15 pages, 3366 KiB  
Article
Characteristics of Open Circuit Voltage Relaxation in Lithium-Ion Batteries for the Purpose of State of Charge and State of Health Analysis
by David Theuerkauf and Lukas Swan
Batteries 2022, 8(8), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8080077 - 26 Jul 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 11653
Abstract
Open circuit voltage relaxation to a steady state value occurs, and is measured, at the terminals of a lithium-ion battery when current stops flowing. It is of interest for use in determining state of charge and state of health. As voltage relaxation can [...] Read more.
Open circuit voltage relaxation to a steady state value occurs, and is measured, at the terminals of a lithium-ion battery when current stops flowing. It is of interest for use in determining state of charge and state of health. As voltage relaxation can take several hours, a representative model and curve fitting is necessary for practical usage. Previous studies of lithium-ion voltage relaxation investigate four characteristics: relationship between voltage relaxation magnitude and state of charge; length of relaxation required; model complexity for state of charge estimation; and model complexity for state of health evaluation. However, previous studies have inconsistent methodology or use only one type of lithium-ion cell, making comparison and generalization difficult. To address this, we conducted 3 h and 24 h voltage relaxation experiments over a range of states of charge on three different lithium ion chemistries (nickel cobalt aluminum NCA; nickel manganese cobalt NMC532; lithium iron phosphate LFP) and fitted them with a new voltage relaxation equivalent circuit model. It was found that a 3 h relaxation period was sufficient for NMC and LFP for state of charge and state of health investigations. Voltage relaxation of the NCA cell continued to evolve past 24 h. It was shown that voltage relaxation shape and magnitude changes as a function of state of charge, and the accuracy of estimating state of charge was explored. Strategically choosing a state of charge for state of health assessment can be optimized to accentuate voltage relaxation magnitude and this differs by chemistry. This suggested technique and experimental findings can be paired with battery degradation studies to determine accuracy of assessing state of health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Recent Advances in Battery Management Systems)
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23 pages, 7713 KiB  
Review
Recent Health Diagnosis Methods for Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Yaqi Li, Jia Guo, Kjeld Pedersen, Leonid Gurevich and Daniel-Ioan Stroe
Batteries 2022, 8(7), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8070072 - 15 Jul 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5358
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries have good performance and environmentally friendly characteristics, so they have great potential. However, lithium-ion batteries will age to varying degrees during use, and the process is irreversible. There are many aging mechanisms of lithium batteries. In order to better verify the [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries have good performance and environmentally friendly characteristics, so they have great potential. However, lithium-ion batteries will age to varying degrees during use, and the process is irreversible. There are many aging mechanisms of lithium batteries. In order to better verify the internal changes of lithium batteries when they are aging, post-mortem analysis has been greatly developed. In this article, we summarized the electrical properties analysis and post-mortem analysis of lithium batteries developed in recent years and compared the advantages of varieties of both destructive and non-destructive methods, for example, open-circuit-voltage curve-based analysis, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. On this basis, new ideas could be proposed for predicting and diagnosing the aging degree of lithium batteries, at the same time, further implementation of these technologies will support battery life control strategies and battery design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries Aging Mechanisms, 2nd Edition)
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25 pages, 3188 KiB  
Article
Determination of Internal Temperature Differences for Various Cylindrical Lithium-Ion Batteries Using a Pulse Resistance Approach
by Sebastian Ludwig, Marco Steinhardt and Andreas Jossen
Batteries 2022, 8(7), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8070060 - 23 Jun 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6783
Abstract
The temperature of lithium-ion batteries is crucial in terms of performance, aging, and safety. The internal temperature, which is complicated to measure with conventional temperature sensors, plays an important role here. For this reason, numerous methods exist in the literature for determining the [...] Read more.
The temperature of lithium-ion batteries is crucial in terms of performance, aging, and safety. The internal temperature, which is complicated to measure with conventional temperature sensors, plays an important role here. For this reason, numerous methods exist in the literature for determining the internal cell temperature without sensors, which are usually based on electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. This study presents a method in the time domain, based on the pulse resistance, for determining the internal cell temperature by examining the temperature behavior for the cylindrical formats 18650, 21700, and 26650 in isothermal and transient temperature states for different states of charge (SOCs). A previously validated component-resolved 2D thermal model was used to analyze the location of the calculated temperature TR within the cell, which is still an unsolved question for pulse resistance-based temperature determination. The model comparison shows that TR is close to the average jelly roll temperature. The differences between surface temperature and TR depend on the SOC and cell format and range from 2.14K to 2.70K (18650), 3.07K to 3.85K (21700), and 4.74K to 5.45K (26650). The difference decreases for each cell format with increasing SOC and is linear dependent on the cell diameter. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Performance, Ageing, Reliability and Safety)
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17 pages, 4427 KiB  
Review
Recent Progress and Challenges of Flexible Zn-Based Batteries with Polymer Electrolyte
by Funian Mo, Binbin Guo, Wei Ling, Jun Wei, Lina Chen, Suzhu Yu and Guojin Liang
Batteries 2022, 8(6), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8060059 - 18 Jun 2022
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6271
Abstract
Zn-based batteries have been identified as promising candidates for flexible and wearable batteries because of their merits of intrinsic safety, eco-efficiency, high capacity and cost-effectiveness. Polymer electrolytes, which feature high solubility of zinc salts and softness, are especially advantageous for flexible Zn-based batteries. [...] Read more.
Zn-based batteries have been identified as promising candidates for flexible and wearable batteries because of their merits of intrinsic safety, eco-efficiency, high capacity and cost-effectiveness. Polymer electrolytes, which feature high solubility of zinc salts and softness, are especially advantageous for flexible Zn-based batteries. However, many technical issues still need to be addressed in Zn-based batteries with polymer electrolytes for their future application in wearable electronics. Recent progress in advanced flexible Zn-based batteries based on polymer electrolytes, including functional hydrogel electrolytes and solid polymer electrolytes, as well as the interfacial interactions between polymer electrolytes and electrodes in battery devices, is comprehensively reviewed and discussed with a focus on their fabrication, performance validation, and intriguing affiliated functions. Moreover, relevant challenges and some potential strategies are also summarized and analyzed to help inform the future direction of polymer-electrolyte-based flexible Zn-based batteries with high practicability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zn-Based Batteries: Recent Progresses and Challenges)
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17 pages, 2919 KiB  
Article
Impact of Sulfur Infiltration Time and Its Content in an N-doped Mesoporous Carbon for Application in Li-S Batteries
by Jennifer Laverde, Nataly C. Rosero-Navarro, Akira Miura, Robison Buitrago-Sierra, Kiyoharu Tadanaga and Diana López
Batteries 2022, 8(6), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8060058 - 17 Jun 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3757
Abstract
Li-S batteries are ideal candidates to replace current lithium-ion batteries as next-generation energy storage systems thanks to their high specific capacity and theoretical energy density. Composite electrodes based on carbon microstructures are often used as a host for sulfur. However, sulfur lixiviation, insoluble [...] Read more.
Li-S batteries are ideal candidates to replace current lithium-ion batteries as next-generation energy storage systems thanks to their high specific capacity and theoretical energy density. Composite electrodes based on carbon microstructures are often used as a host for sulfur. However, sulfur lixiviation, insoluble species formation, and how to maximize the sulfur-carbon contact in looking for improved electrochemical performance are still major challenges. In this study, a nitrogen doped mesoporous carbon is used as a host for sulfur. The S/C composite electrodes are prepared by sulfur melting-diffusion process at 155 °C. The effect of the sulfur melting-diffusion time [sulfur infiltration time] (1–24 h) and sulfur content (10–70%) is investigated by using XRD, SEM, TEM and TGA analyses and correlated with the electrochemical performance in Li-S cells. S/C composite electrode with homogeneous sulfur distribution can be reached with 6 h of sulfur melting-diffusion and 10 wt.% of sulfur content. Li-S cell with this composite shows a high use of sulfur and sufficient electronic conductivity achieving an initial discharge capacity of 983 mA h g−1 and Coulombic efficiency of 99% after 100 cycles. Full article
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14 pages, 3600 KiB  
Article
Advanced Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy of Industrial Ni-Cd Batteries
by Nawfal Al-Zubaidi R-Smith, Manuel Kasper, Peeyush Kumar, Daniel Nilsson, Björn Mårlid and Ferry Kienberger
Batteries 2022, 8(6), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8060050 - 29 May 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4973
Abstract
Advanced electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was applied to characterize industrial Ni-Cd batteries and to investigate the electrochemical redox processes. A two-term calibration workflow was used for accurate complex impedance measurements across a broad frequency range of 10 mHz to 2 kHz, resulting in [...] Read more.
Advanced electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was applied to characterize industrial Ni-Cd batteries and to investigate the electrochemical redox processes. A two-term calibration workflow was used for accurate complex impedance measurements across a broad frequency range of 10 mHz to 2 kHz, resulting in calibrated resistance and reactance values. The EIS calibration significantly improved the measurements, particularly at high frequencies above 200 Hz, with differences of 6–8% to the uncalibrated impedance. With an electromagnetic finite element method (FEM) model, we showed that the impedance is strongly influenced by the cable fixturing and the self-inductance of the wire conductors due to alternating currents, which are efficiently removed by the proposed calibration workflow. For single cells, we measured the resistance and the reactance with respect to the state-of-charge (SoC) at different frequencies and a given rest period. For Ni-Cd blocks that include two cells in series, we found good agreement of EIS curves with single cells. As such, EIS can be used as a fast and reliable method to estimate the cell or block capacity status. For electrochemical interpretation, we used an equivalent electric circuit (EEC) model to fit the impedance spectra and to extract the main electrochemical parameters based on calibrated EIS, including charge-transfer kinetics, mass transport, and ohmic resistances. From the charge-transfer resistance, we computed the exchange current density, resulting in 0.23 A/cm2, reflecting high intrinsic rates of the redox electron transfer processes in Ni-Cd cells. Full article
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14 pages, 3459 KiB  
Article
Impact of Full Prelithiation of Si-Based Anodes on the Rate and Cycle Performance of Li-Ion Capacitors
by Takuya Eguchi, Ryoichi Sugawara, Yusuke Abe, Masahiro Tomioka and Seiji Kumagai
Batteries 2022, 8(6), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8060049 - 27 May 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4058
Abstract
The impact of full prelithiation on the rate and cycle performance of a Si-based Li-ion capacitor (LIC) was investigated. Full prelithiation of the anode was achieved by assembling a half cell with a 2 µm-sized Si anode (0 V vs. Li/Li+) [...] Read more.
The impact of full prelithiation on the rate and cycle performance of a Si-based Li-ion capacitor (LIC) was investigated. Full prelithiation of the anode was achieved by assembling a half cell with a 2 µm-sized Si anode (0 V vs. Li/Li+) and Li metal. A three-electrode full cell (100% prelithiation) was assembled using an activated carbon (AC) cathode with a high specific surface area (3041 m2/g), fully prelithiated Si anode, and Li metal reference electrode. A three-electrode full cell (87% prelithiation) using a Si anode prelithiated with 87% Li ions was also assembled. Both cells displayed similar energy density levels at a lower power density (200 Wh/kg at ≤100 W/kg; based on the total mass of AC and Si). However, at a higher power density (1 kW/kg), the 100% prelithiation cell maintained a high energy density (180 Wh/kg), whereas that of the 87% prelithiation cell was significantly reduced (80 Wh/kg). During charge/discharge cycling at ~1 kW/kg, the energy density retention of the 100% prelithiation cell was higher than that of the 87% prelithiation cell. The larger irreversibility of the Si anode during the initial Li-ion uptake/release cycles confirmed that the simple full prelithiation process is essential for Si-based LIC cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Li-Ion Capacitors: Materials, Devices and Systems)
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14 pages, 3963 KiB  
Article
Numerical and Experimental Evaluation of a Battery Cell under Impact Load
by Adrian Daniel Muresanu and Mircea Cristian Dudescu
Batteries 2022, 8(5), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050048 - 20 May 2022
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5253
Abstract
Impact damage is one of the most critical scenarios for the lithium-ion battery pack of an electrical vehicle, as it involves mechanical abusive loads with serious consequences on electrical and thermal stability. The development of a numerical model for an explicit dynamic simulation [...] Read more.
Impact damage is one of the most critical scenarios for the lithium-ion battery pack of an electrical vehicle, as it involves mechanical abusive loads with serious consequences on electrical and thermal stability. The development of a numerical model for an explicit dynamic simulation of a Li-ion battery pack under impact implies a significant computational effort if detailed models of a single battery cell are employed. The present paper presents a homogenized finite element model of a battery cell, validated by experimental tests of individual materials and an impact test of an entire cell. The macro model is composed of shell elements representing outside casing and elements with a homogenized and isotropic material for the jelly roll. The displacements and deformed shape of the numerical model of the battery cell were compared with those measured on real test specimens; full-field optical scanning was employed to reconstruct the 3D shape of the deformed battery. The overall deformation of the simulation and experimental results are comparable with a deviation of the maximum intrusion of 14.8% for impact direction and 19.5% for the perpendicular direction considering the cumulative effects of simplifying hypotheses of the numerical model and experimental side effects. The results are a starting point for future analyses of a battery pack and its protection systems under impact. The model presented in this paper, considering the low computing power needed for calculation and acceptable mesh size for crash, should be able to be used in bigger resources consuming crash simulation models. In this way, the cells’ deformation and behavior can be tracked more easily for safety management and diagnosis of the crashworthiness of the packs or car batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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15 pages, 2872 KiB  
Article
Calendering of Silicon-Containing Electrodes and Their Influence on the Mechanical and Electrochemical Properties
by Sören Scheffler, René Jagau, Nele Müller, Alexander Diener and Arno Kwade
Batteries 2022, 8(5), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050046 - 18 May 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6114
Abstract
The process chain of electrode production includes calendering as a crucial process step to enhance the volumetric energy density as well as to influence the particle-pore-structure and simultaneously the mechanical and electrochemical properties of the electrode coating. A further way to improve the [...] Read more.
The process chain of electrode production includes calendering as a crucial process step to enhance the volumetric energy density as well as to influence the particle-pore-structure and simultaneously the mechanical and electrochemical properties of the electrode coating. A further way to improve the volumetric energy density is the usage of other materials with higher specific capacity, such as silicon instead of graphite as the active material for anodes. In this study, both opportunities, calendering and using silicon-containing composites, are combined to investigate the relations between material, process and performance. The applied line loads for the compaction are correlated with the silicon mass fraction and lead to a silicon-dependent mathematical model to estimate further line loads for silicon-graphite-composite electrodes. On the basis of established analyzing methods for adhesion strength and deformation behavior, it is shown that with increasing silicon content, the elastic deformation of the electrode coating rises. In addition, the overall porosity of the electrodes is less affected by silicon than the pore size distribution compared to graphite electrodes. Furthermore, the electrical conductivity decreases at higher silicon contents independent of coating density. Moreover, the long-term electrochemical stability deteriorates with increasing silicon content and coating density. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Battery Processing, Manufacturing and Recycling)
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13 pages, 400 KiB  
Article
IBM Quantum Platforms: A Quantum Battery Perspective
by Giulia Gemme, Michele Grossi, Dario Ferraro, Sofia Vallecorsa and Maura Sassetti
Batteries 2022, 8(5), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8050043 - 14 May 2022
Cited by 47 | Viewed by 7693
Abstract
We characterize for the first time the performances of IBM quantum chips as quantum batteries, specifically addressing the single-qubit Armonk processor. By exploiting the Pulse access enabled to some of the IBM Quantum processors via the Qiskit package, we investigate the advantages and [...] Read more.
We characterize for the first time the performances of IBM quantum chips as quantum batteries, specifically addressing the single-qubit Armonk processor. By exploiting the Pulse access enabled to some of the IBM Quantum processors via the Qiskit package, we investigate the advantages and limitations of different profiles for classical drives used to charge these miniaturized batteries, establishing the optimal compromise between charging time and stored energy. Moreover, we consider the role played by various possible initial conditions on the functioning of the quantum batteries. As the main result of our analysis, we observe that unavoidable errors occurring in the initialization phase of the qubit, which can be detrimental for quantum computing applications, only marginally affect energy transfer and storage. This can lead counter-intuitively to improvements of the performances. This is a strong indication of the fact that IBM quantum devices are already in the proper range of parameters to be considered as good and stable quantum batteries comparable to state-of-the-art devices recently discussed in the literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Quantum Battery Applications)
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29 pages, 16314 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Model-Based and Sensor-Based Detection of Thermal Runaway in Li-Ion Battery Modules for Automotive Application
by Jacob Klink, André Hebenbrock, Jens Grabow, Nury Orazov, Ulf Nylén, Ralf Benger and Hans-Peter Beck
Batteries 2022, 8(4), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8040034 - 12 Apr 2022
Cited by 33 | Viewed by 7990
Abstract
In recent years, research on lithium–ion (Li-ion) battery safety and fault detection has become an important topic, providing a broad range of methods for evaluating the cell state based on voltage and temperature measurements. However, other measurement quantities and close-to-application test setups have [...] Read more.
In recent years, research on lithium–ion (Li-ion) battery safety and fault detection has become an important topic, providing a broad range of methods for evaluating the cell state based on voltage and temperature measurements. However, other measurement quantities and close-to-application test setups have only been sparsely considered, and there has been no comparison in between methods. In this work, the feasibility of a multi-sensor setup for the detection of Thermal Runaway failure of automotive-size Li-ion battery modules have been investigated in comparison to a model-based approach. For experimental validation, Thermal Runaway tests were conducted in a close-to-application configuration of module and battery case—triggered by external heating with two different heating rates. By two repetitions of each experiment, a high accordance of characteristics and results has been achieved and the signal feasibility for fault detection has been discussed. The model-based method, that had previously been published, recognised the thermal fault in the fastest way—significantly prior to the required 5 min pre-warning time. This requirement was also achieved with smoke and gas sensors in most test runs. Additional criteria for evaluating detection approaches besides detection time have been discussed to provide a good starting point for choosing a suitable approach that is dependent on application defined requirements, e.g., acceptable complexity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Safety of Lithium-Ion Batteries)
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19 pages, 4525 KiB  
Article
Online State-of-Health Estimation of Lithium-Ion Battery Based on Incremental Capacity Curve and BP Neural Network
by Hongye Lin, Longyun Kang, Di Xie, Jinqing Linghu and Jie Li
Batteries 2022, 8(4), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8040029 - 23 Mar 2022
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 5351
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely used in various fields. In order to ensure the safety of LIBs, it is necessary to accurately estimate of the state of health (SOH) of the LIBs. This paper proposes a SOH hybrid estimation method based on [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely used in various fields. In order to ensure the safety of LIBs, it is necessary to accurately estimate of the state of health (SOH) of the LIBs. This paper proposes a SOH hybrid estimation method based on incremental capacity (IC) curve and back-propagation neural network (BPNN). The voltage and current data of the LIB during the constant current (CC) charging process are used to convert into IC curves. Taking into account the incompleteness of the actual charging process, this paper divides the IC curve into multiple voltage segments for SOH prediction. Corresponding BP neural network is established in multiple voltage segments. The experiment divides the LIBs into five groups to carry out the aging experiment under different discharge conditions. Aging experiment data are used to establish the non-linear relationship between the decline of SOH and the change of IC curve by BP neural network. Experimental results show that in all voltage segments, the maximum mean absolute error does not exceed 2%. The SOH estimation method proposed in this research makes it possible to embed the SOH estimation function in battery management system (BMS), and can realize high-precision SOH online estimation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Batteries and Supercapacitors Aging Ⅱ)
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16 pages, 2978 KiB  
Article
Durable Fast Charging of Lithium-Ion Batteries Based on Simulations with an Electrode Equivalent Circuit Model
by Robin Drees, Frank Lienesch and Michael Kurrat
Batteries 2022, 8(4), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8040030 - 23 Mar 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4575
Abstract
Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries is often related to accelerated cell degradation due to lithium-plating on the negative electrode. In this contribution, an advanced electrode equivalent circuit model is used in order to simulate fast-charging strategies without lithium-plating. A novel parameterization approach based [...] Read more.
Fast charging of lithium-ion batteries is often related to accelerated cell degradation due to lithium-plating on the negative electrode. In this contribution, an advanced electrode equivalent circuit model is used in order to simulate fast-charging strategies without lithium-plating. A novel parameterization approach based on 3-electrode cell measurements is developed, which enables precise simulation fidelity. An optimized fast-charging strategy without evoking lithium-plating was simulated that lasted about 29 min for a 0–80% state of charge. This variable current strategy was compared in experiments to a conventional constant-current–constant-voltage fast-charging strategy that lasted 20 min. The experiments showed that the optimized strategy prevented lithium-plating and led to a 2% capacity fade every 100 fast-charging cycles. In contrast, the conventional strategy led to lithium-plating, about 20% capacity fade after 100 fast-charging cycles and the fast-charging duration extended from 20 min to over 30 min due to increased cell resistances. The duration of the optimized fast charging was constant at 29 min, even after 300 cycles. The developed methods are suitable to be applied for any given lithium-ion battery configuration in order to determine the maximum fast-charging capability while ensuring safe and durable cycling conditions. Full article
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26 pages, 10295 KiB  
Article
Stationary Battery Thermal Management: Analysis of Active Cooling Designs
by Getu Hailu, Martin Henke and Todd Petersen
Batteries 2022, 8(3), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8030023 - 1 Mar 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 6552
Abstract
Stationary battery systems are becoming more prevalent around the world, with both the quantity and capacity of installations growing at the same time. Large battery installations and uninterruptible power supply can generate a significant amount of heat during operation; while this is widely [...] Read more.
Stationary battery systems are becoming more prevalent around the world, with both the quantity and capacity of installations growing at the same time. Large battery installations and uninterruptible power supply can generate a significant amount of heat during operation; while this is widely understood, current thermal management methods have not kept up with the increase of stationary battery installations. Active cooling has long been the default approach of thermal management for stationary batteries; however, there is no academic research or comparative studies available for this technology. The present work presents assessment of different active cooling methods through an experimentally validated computational fluid dynamics simulation. Following model validation, several cooling system configurations were analyzed, including effects from implementing either a perforated vent plate or vortex generators. The vent plate was observed to greatly increase cooling performance while simultaneously promoting temperature uniformity between batteries. Vortex generators were shown to marginally increase cooling performance, yet, future research is recommended to study the effects and improvement of the design. The average battery temperature for the vented model is reduced by approximately 5.2 °C, while the average temperature differential among the batteries was only 2.7 °C, less than the recommend value (3 °C) by ASHRAE/IEEE Standards. Full article
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15 pages, 36162 KiB  
Article
Reduced Graphene Oxide Aerogels with Functionalization-Mediated Disordered Stacking for Sodium-Ion Batteries
by Jaehyeung Park, Jaswinder Sharma, Charl J. Jafta, Lilin He, Harry M. Meyer III, Jianlin Li, Jong K. Keum, Ngoc A. Nguyen and Georgios Polizos
Batteries 2022, 8(2), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8020012 - 1 Feb 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4326
Abstract
Surface modified reduced graphene oxide (rGO) aerogels were synthesized using the hydrothermal method. Ethylene diamine (EDA) and α-cyclodextrin (CD) were used to functionalize the surface of the graphene oxide layers. The oxygen reduction and surface modification occurred in-situ during the hydrothermal self-assembly process. [...] Read more.
Surface modified reduced graphene oxide (rGO) aerogels were synthesized using the hydrothermal method. Ethylene diamine (EDA) and α-cyclodextrin (CD) were used to functionalize the surface of the graphene oxide layers. The oxygen reduction and surface modification occurred in-situ during the hydrothermal self-assembly process. The chemical functionality and structure of the resulting ethylene diamine modified (rGO-EDA) and cyclodextrin modified (rGO-CD) aerogels as well as of the pristine unmodified rGO aerogel were studied using XPS, SEM, XRD, and SANS techniques. The overall surface composition showed a significant decrease in the oxygen content for all synthesized aerogels. The surface modified aerogels were characterized by a disordered stacking of the assembled rGO layers. The surface functionalities resulted in a broad distribution of the interlayer spacing and introduced structural heterogeneities. Such disordered structures can enable a better adsorption mechanism of the sodium ions. Coin cells based on the synthesized aerogels and sodium metal were assembled and tested at several charge and discharge rates. The correlation between the surface functionality of the rGO, the induced structural heterogeneities due to the disordered stacking, and the electrochemical performance of sodium-ion batteries were investigated. Operando XRD measurements were carried out during the battery cycling to investigate the adsorption or intercalation nature of the sodiation mechanism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sodium-Ion Battery: Latest Advances and Prospects)
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17 pages, 2296 KiB  
Article
Multiple Scenario Analysis of Battery Energy Storage System Investment: Measuring Economic and Circular Viability
by Benedikte Wrålsen and Bernhard Faessler
Batteries 2022, 8(2), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8020007 - 21 Jan 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6165
Abstract
Circular business models for batteries have been revealed in earlier research to achieve economic viability while reducing total resource consumption of raw materials. The objective of this study is to measure the economic performance of the preferred business model by creating different scenarios [...] Read more.
Circular business models for batteries have been revealed in earlier research to achieve economic viability while reducing total resource consumption of raw materials. The objective of this study is to measure the economic performance of the preferred business model by creating different scenarios comparing second life (spent) and new battery investment for seven different European regions and four energy management strategies. Findings reveal levels of economic ability for a total of 34 scenarios simulated, including direct savings per kWh, a total change in energy costs per year, battery charge/discharge cycles, and comparative breakeven analyses. Regional effects are also measured based on day-ahead electricity prices and solar irradiation. The minimum payback time is 7 years before battery system investment costs are covered. The most viable energy management strategies also had the highest number of charge/discharge cycles, which decreases battery lifetime. Investment in a second life battery compared to a new battery reduced the payback time by 0.5 to 2 years due to lower investment costs. However, the estimated lifetime range (3 to 10 years) is lower compared to a new battery (5 to 15 years), which questions the circular business model viability for the scenarios studied. Energy management strategies should be combined and customized to increase economic benefits. Full article
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19 pages, 6317 KiB  
Article
Development of a Matlab/Simulink Model for Monitoring Cell State-of-Health and State-of-Charge via Impedance of Lithium-Ion Battery Cells
by Jonghyeon Kim and Julia Kowal
Batteries 2022, 8(2), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries8020008 - 21 Jan 2022
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 12900
Abstract
Lithium-ion battery cells not only show different behaviors depending on degradation and charging states, but also overcharge and overdischarge of cells shorten battery life and cause safety problems, thus studies aiming to provide an accurate state of a cell are required. Measurements of [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion battery cells not only show different behaviors depending on degradation and charging states, but also overcharge and overdischarge of cells shorten battery life and cause safety problems, thus studies aiming to provide an accurate state of a cell are required. Measurements of battery cell impedance are used for cell SoH and SoC estimation techniques, but it generally takes a long time for a cell in each state to be prepared and cell voltage response is measured when charging and discharging under each condition. This study introduces an electrical equivalent circuit model of lithium-ion cells developed in the MATLAB/Simulink environment. Cell SoC, SoH, temperature, and C-rate are considered for more accurate cell impedance prediction, and the simulation results are verified with the measurement results. The developed model is suitable for use in cell SoC and SoH monitoring studies by successfully outputting cell impedance through real-time prediction of cell voltage during discharge. Full article
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24 pages, 1944 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Disassembly Strategies for Electric Vehicle Batteries
by Sabri Baazouzi, Felix Paul Rist, Max Weeber and Kai Peter Birke
Batteries 2021, 7(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7040074 - 7 Nov 2021
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 10234
Abstract
Various studies show that electrification, integrated into a circular economy, is crucial to reach sustainable mobility solutions. In this context, the circular use of electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) is particularly relevant because of the resource intensity during manufacturing. After reaching the end-of-life phase, [...] Read more.
Various studies show that electrification, integrated into a circular economy, is crucial to reach sustainable mobility solutions. In this context, the circular use of electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) is particularly relevant because of the resource intensity during manufacturing. After reaching the end-of-life phase, EVBs can be subjected to various circular economy strategies, all of which require the previous disassembly. Today, disassembly is carried out manually and represents a bottleneck process. At the same time, extremely high return volumes have been forecast for the next few years, and manual disassembly is associated with safety risks. That is why automated disassembly is identified as being a key enabler of highly efficient circularity. However, several challenges need to be addressed to ensure secure, economic, and ecological disassembly processes. One of these is ensuring that optimal disassembly strategies are determined, considering the uncertainties during disassembly. This paper introduces our design for an adaptive disassembly planner with an integrated disassembly strategy optimizer. Furthermore, we present our optimization method for obtaining optimal disassembly strategies as a combination of three decisions: (1) the optimal disassembly sequence, (2) the optimal disassembly depth, and (3) the optimal circular economy strategy at the component level. Finally, we apply the proposed method to derive optimal disassembly strategies for one selected battery system for two condition scenarios. The results show that the optimization of disassembly strategies must also be used as a tool in the design phase of battery systems to boost the disassembly automation and thus contribute to achieving profitable circular economy solutions for EVBs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Systems and Energy Storage beyond 2020)
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12 pages, 2247 KiB  
Article
High-Potential Test for Quality Control of Separator Defects in Battery Cell Production
by Louisa Hoffmann, Manuel Kasper, Maik Kahn, Georg Gramse, Gabriela Ventura Silva, Christoph Herrmann, Michael Kurrat and Ferry Kienberger
Batteries 2021, 7(4), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7040064 - 24 Sep 2021
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 13867
Abstract
Lithium-ion batteries are a key technology for electromobility; thus, quality control in cell production is a central aspect for the success of electric vehicles. The detection of defects and poor insulation behavior of the separator is essential for high-quality batteries. Optical quality control [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion batteries are a key technology for electromobility; thus, quality control in cell production is a central aspect for the success of electric vehicles. The detection of defects and poor insulation behavior of the separator is essential for high-quality batteries. Optical quality control methods in cell production are unable to detect small but still relevant defects in the separator layer, e.g., pinholes or particle contaminations. This gap can be closed by executing high-potential testing to analyze the insulation performance of the electrically insulating separator layer in a pouch cell. Here, we present an experimental study to identify different separator defects on dry cell stacks on the basis of electric voltage stress and mechanical pressure. In addition, finite element modeling (FEM) is used to generate physical insights into the partial discharge by examining the defect structures and the corresponding electric fields, including topographical electrode roughness, impurity particles, and voids in the separator. The test results show that hard discharges are associated with significant separator defects. Based on the study, a voltage of 350 to 450 V and a pressure of 0.3 to 0.6 N/mm2 are identified as optimum ranges for the test methodology, resulting in failure detection rates of up to 85%. Full article
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26 pages, 4361 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Modelling of Extraction and Processing of Battery Minerals—A Parametric Approach
by Nelson Bunyui Manjong, Lorenzo Usai, Odne Stokke Burheim and Anders Hammer Strømman
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030057 - 24 Aug 2021
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 10361
Abstract
Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery [...] Read more.
Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery materials, it is vital to re-assess the footprints of these material value chains. Identifying the causes of these variations by combining engineering and environmental system analysis expands our knowledge of the footprints of these battery materials. This article disaggregates the value chains of six raw battery materials (aluminum, copper, graphite, lithium carbonate, manganese, and nickel) and identifies the sources of variabilities (levers) for each process along each value chain. We developed a parametric attributional process-based life cycle model to explore the effect of these levers on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the value chains, expressed in kg of CO2e. The parametric life cycle inventory model is used to conduct distinct life cycle assessments (LCA) for each material value chain by varying the identified levers within defined engineering ranges. 570 distinct LCAs are conducted for the aluminum value chain, 450 for copper, 170 for graphite, 39 for lithium carbonate via spodumene, 20 for lithium carbonate via brine, 260 for manganese, and 440 for nickel. Three-dimensional representations of these results for each value chain in kg of CO2e are presented as contour plots with gradient lines illustrating the intensity of lever combinations on the GHG emissions. The results of this study convey multidimensional insights into how changes in the lever settings of value chains yield variations in the overall GHG emissions of the raw materials. Parameterization of these value chains forms a flexible and high-resolution backbone, leading towards a more reliable life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries (LIB). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Circular Battery Technologies)
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15 pages, 3401 KiB  
Article
Carbon Monoliths with Hierarchical Porous Structure for All-Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries
by Jose Francisco Vivo-Vilches, Blagoj Karakashov, Alain Celzard, Vanessa Fierro, Ranine El Hage, Nicolas Brosse, Anthony Dufour and Mathieu Etienne
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030055 - 10 Aug 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4121
Abstract
Carbon monoliths were tested as electrodes for vanadium redox batteries. The materials were synthesised by a hard-templating route, employing sucrose as carbon precursor and sodium chloride crystals as the hard template. For the preparation process, both sucrose and sodium chloride were ball-milled together [...] Read more.
Carbon monoliths were tested as electrodes for vanadium redox batteries. The materials were synthesised by a hard-templating route, employing sucrose as carbon precursor and sodium chloride crystals as the hard template. For the preparation process, both sucrose and sodium chloride were ball-milled together and molten into a paste which was hot-pressed to achieve polycondensation of sucrose into a hard monolith. The resultant material was pyrolysed in nitrogen at 750 °C, and then washed to remove the salt by dissolving it in water. Once the porosity was opened, a second pyrolysis step at 900 °C was performed for the complete conversion of the materials into carbon. The products were next characterised in terms of textural properties and composition. Changes in porosity, obtained by varying the proportions of sucrose to sodium chloride in the initial mixture, were correlated with the electrochemical performances of the samples, and a good agreement between capacitive response and microporosity was indeed observed highlighted by an increase in the cyclic voltammetry curve area when the SBET increased. In contrast, the reversibility of vanadium redox reactions measured as a function of the difference between reduction and oxidation potentials was correlated with the accessibility of the active vanadium species to the carbon surface, i.e., was correlated with the macroporosity. The latter was a critical parameter for understanding the differences of energy and voltage efficiencies among the materials, those with larger macropore volumes having the higher efficiencies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Material Design and Development for Redox Flow Batteries II)
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9 pages, 2223 KiB  
Article
Layered Iron Vanadate as a High-Capacity Cathode Material for Nonaqueous Calcium-Ion Batteries
by Munseok S. Chae, Dedy Setiawan, Hyojeong J. Kim and Seung-Tae Hong
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030054 - 9 Aug 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 5447
Abstract
Calcium-ion batteries represent a promising alternative to the current lithium-ion batteries. Nevertheless, calcium-ion intercalating materials in nonaqueous electrolytes are scarce, probably due to the difficulties in finding suitable host materials. Considering that research into calcium-ion batteries is in its infancy, discovering and characterizing [...] Read more.
Calcium-ion batteries represent a promising alternative to the current lithium-ion batteries. Nevertheless, calcium-ion intercalating materials in nonaqueous electrolytes are scarce, probably due to the difficulties in finding suitable host materials. Considering that research into calcium-ion batteries is in its infancy, discovering and characterizing new host materials would be critical to further development. Here, we demonstrate FeV3O9?1.2H2O as a high-performance calcium-ion battery cathode material that delivers a reversible discharge capacity of 303 mAh g?1 with a good cycling stability and an average discharge voltage of ~2.6 V (vs. Ca/Ca2+). The material was synthesized via a facile co-precipitation method. Its reversible capacity is the highest among calcium-ion battery materials, and it is the first example of a material with a capacity much larger than that of conventional lithium-ion battery cathode materials. Bulk intercalation of calcium into the host lattice contributed predominantly to the total capacity at a lower rate, but became comparable to that due to surface adsorption at a higher rate. This stimulating discovery will lead to the development of new strategies for obtaining high energy density calcium-ion batteries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal, and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells II)
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36 pages, 7869 KiB  
Review
In-Situ Tools Used in Vanadium Redox Flow Battery Research—Review
by Purna C. Ghimire, Arjun Bhattarai, Tuti M. Lim, Nyunt Wai, Maria Skyllas-Kazacos and Qingyu Yan
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030053 - 4 Aug 2021
Cited by 34 | Viewed by 12136
Abstract
Progress in renewable energy production has directed interest in advanced developments of energy storage systems. The all-vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is one of the attractive technologies for large scale energy storage due to its design versatility and scalability, longevity, good round-trip efficiencies, [...] Read more.
Progress in renewable energy production has directed interest in advanced developments of energy storage systems. The all-vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is one of the attractive technologies for large scale energy storage due to its design versatility and scalability, longevity, good round-trip efficiencies, stable capacity and safety. Despite these advantages, the deployment of the vanadium battery has been limited due to vanadium and cell material costs, as well as supply issues. Improving stack power density can lower the cost per kW power output and therefore, intensive research and development is currently ongoing to improve cell performance by increasing electrode activity, reducing cell resistance, improving membrane selectivity and ionic conductivity, etc. In order to evaluate the cell performance arising from this intensive R&D, numerous physical, electrochemical and chemical techniques are employed, which are mostly carried out ex situ, particularly on cell characterizations. However, this approach is unable to provide in-depth insights into the changes within the cell during operation. Therefore, in situ diagnostic tools have been developed to acquire information relating to the design, operating parameters and cell materials during VRFB operation. This paper reviews in situ diagnostic tools used to realize an in-depth insight into the VRFBs. A systematic review of the previous research in the field is presented with the advantages and limitations of each technique being discussed, along with the recommendations to guide researchers to identify the most appropriate technique for specific investigations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Redox Flow Batteries for Large-Scale Energy Storage)
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23 pages, 810 KiB  
Article
Combining the Distribution of Relaxation Times from EIS and Time-Domain Data for Parameterizing Equivalent Circuit Models of Lithium-Ion Batteries
by Leo Wildfeuer, Philipp Gieler and Alexander Karger
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030052 - 2 Aug 2021
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 9759
Abstract
Equivalent circuit models (ECMs) are a widely used modeling approach for lithium-ion batteries in engineering applications. The RC elements, which display the dynamic loss processes of the cell, are usually parameterized by fitting the ECM to experimental data in either the time-domain or [...] Read more.
Equivalent circuit models (ECMs) are a widely used modeling approach for lithium-ion batteries in engineering applications. The RC elements, which display the dynamic loss processes of the cell, are usually parameterized by fitting the ECM to experimental data in either the time-domain or the frequency-domain. However, both types of data have limitations with regard to the observable time constants of electrochemical processes. This work proposes a method to combine time-domain and frequency-domain measurement data for parameterization of RC elements by exploiting the full potential of the distribution of relaxation times (DRT). Instead of using only partial information from the DRT to supplement a conventional fitting algorithm, we determine the parameters of an arbitrary number of RC elements directly from the DRT. The difficulties of automated deconvolution of the DRT, including regularization and the choice of an optimal regularization factor, is tackled by using the L-curve criterion for optimized calculation of the DRT via Tikhonov regularization. Three different approaches to merge time- and frequency-domain data are presented, including a novel approach where the DRT is simultaneously calculated from electrochemical impedance spectoscropy (EIS) and pulse relaxation measurements. The parameterized model for a commercial 18650 NCA cell was validated during a validation cycle consisting of constant current and real-world automotive cycling and yields a relative improvement of over 40% compared to a conventional EIS-fitting algorithm. Full article
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15 pages, 2400 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of Equivalent Circuit Models Performance in Four Common Lithium-Ion Batteries: LFP, NMC, LMO, NCA
by Manh-Kien Tran, Andre DaCosta, Anosh Mevawalla, Satyam Panchal and Michael Fowler
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030051 - 27 Jul 2021
Cited by 265 | Viewed by 37807
Abstract
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are an important component of energy storage systems used in various applications such as electric vehicles and portable electronics. There are many chemistries of Li-ion battery, but LFP, NMC, LMO, and NCA are four commonly used types. In order for [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are an important component of energy storage systems used in various applications such as electric vehicles and portable electronics. There are many chemistries of Li-ion battery, but LFP, NMC, LMO, and NCA are four commonly used types. In order for the battery applications to operate safely and effectively, battery modeling is very important. The equivalent circuit model (ECM) is a battery model often used in the battery management system (BMS) to monitor and control Li-ion batteries. In this study, experiments were performed to investigate the performance of three different ECMs (1RC, 2RC, and 1RC with hysteresis) on four Li-ion battery chemistries (LFP, NMC, LMO, and NCA). The results indicated that all three models are usable for the four types of Li-ion chemistries, with low errors. It was also found that the ECMs tend to perform better in dynamic current profiles compared to non-dynamic ones. Overall, the best-performed model for LFP and NCA was the 1RC with hysteresis ECM, while the most suited model for NMC and LMO was the 1RC ECM. The results from this study showed that different ECMs would be suited for different Li-ion battery chemistries, which should be an important factor to be considered in real-world battery and BMS applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries: Latest Advances and Prospects II)
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18 pages, 7849 KiB  
Article
Analysis and Investigation of Thermal Runaway Propagation for a Mechanically Constrained Lithium-Ion Pouch Cell Module
by Luigi Aiello, Ilie Hanzu, Gregor Gstrein, Eduard Ewert, Christian Ellersdorfer and Wolfgang Sinz
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030049 - 19 Jul 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 8515
Abstract
In this paper, tests and analysis of thermal runaway propagation for commercial modules consisting of four 41 Ah Li-ion pouch cells are presented. Module samples were tested at 100% state-of-charge and mechanically constrained between two steel plates to provide thermal and mechanical contact [...] Read more.
In this paper, tests and analysis of thermal runaway propagation for commercial modules consisting of four 41 Ah Li-ion pouch cells are presented. Module samples were tested at 100% state-of-charge and mechanically constrained between two steel plates to provide thermal and mechanical contact between the parts. Voltage and temperature of each cell were monitored during the whole experiment. The triggering of the exothermal reactions was obtained by overheating one cell of the stack with a flat steel heater. In preliminary studies, the melting temperature of the separator was measured (from an extracted sample) with differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis techniques, revealing a tri-layers separator with two melting points (?135 °C and ?170 °C). The tests on module level revealed 8 distinct phases observed and analyzed in the respective temperature ranges, including smoking, venting, sparkling, and massive, short circuit condition. The triggering temperature of the cells resulted to be close to the melting temperature of the separator obtained in preliminary tests, confirming that the violent exothermal reactions of thermal runaway are caused by the internal separator failure. Postmortem inspections of the modules revealed the internal electrical failure path in one cell and the propagation of the internal short circuit in its active material volume, suggesting that the expansion of the electrolyte plays a role in the short circuit propagation at the single cell level. The complete thermal runaway propagation process was repeated on 5 modules and ended on average 60 s after the first thermal runaway triggered cell reached a top temperature of 1100 °C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electrochemical, Thermal, and Safety Properties of Lithium and Post-Li Materials and Cells II)
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18 pages, 4459 KiB  
Article
Identification of Degradation Mechanisms by Post-Mortem Analysis for High Power and High Energy Commercial Li-Ion Cells after Electric Vehicle Aging
by Pierre Kuntz, Olivier Raccurt, Philippe Azaïs, Karsten Richter, Thomas Waldmann, Margret Wohlfahrt-Mehrens, Michel Bardet, Anton Buzlukov and Sylvie Genies
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030048 - 16 Jul 2021
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 8301
Abstract
Driven by the rise of the electric automotive industry, the Li-ion battery market is in strong expansion. This technology does not only fulfill the requirements of electric mobility, but is also found in most portable electric devices. Even though Li-ion batteries are known [...] Read more.
Driven by the rise of the electric automotive industry, the Li-ion battery market is in strong expansion. This technology does not only fulfill the requirements of electric mobility, but is also found in most portable electric devices. Even though Li-ion batteries are known for their numerous advantages, they undergo serious performance degradation during their aging, and more particularly when used in specific conditions such as at low temperature or high charging current rates. Depending on the operational conditions, different aging mechanisms are favored and can induce physical and chemical modifications of the internal components, leading to performance decay. In this article, the identification of the degradation mechanisms was carried out thanks to an in-depth ante- and post mortem study on three high power and high energy commercial 18,650 cells. Li-ion cells were aged using a battery electric vehicle (BEV) aging profile at ?20 °C, 0 °C, 25 °C, and 45 °C in accordance with the international standard IEC 62-660, and in calendar aging mode at 45 °C and SOC 100%. Internal components recovered from fresh and aged cells were investigated through different electrochemical (half-coin cell), chemical (EDX, GD-OES, NMR), and topological (SEM) characterization techniques. The influence of power and energy cells’ internal design and Si content in the negative electrode on cell aging has been highlighted vis-à-vis the capacity and power fade. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries Aging Mechanisms, 2nd Edition)
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13 pages, 3161 KiB  
Article
Detection of Lithium Plating in Li-Ion Cell Anodes Using Realistic Automotive Fast-Charge Profiles
by Matteo Dotoli, Emanuele Milo, Mattia Giuliano, Riccardo Rocca, Carlo Nervi, Marcello Baricco, Massimiliano Ercole and Mauro Francesco Sgroi
Batteries 2021, 7(3), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030046 - 7 Jul 2021
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 7889
Abstract
The widespread use of electric vehicles is nowadays limited by the “range anxiety” of the customers. The drivers’ main concerns are related to the kilometric range of the vehicle and to the charging time. An optimized fast-charge profile can help to decrease the [...] Read more.
The widespread use of electric vehicles is nowadays limited by the “range anxiety” of the customers. The drivers’ main concerns are related to the kilometric range of the vehicle and to the charging time. An optimized fast-charge profile can help to decrease the charging time, without degrading the cell performance and reducing the cycle life. One of the main reasons for battery capacity fade is linked to the Lithium plating phenomenon. This work investigates two methodologies, i.e., three-electrode cell measurement and internal resistance evolution during charging, for detecting the Lithium plating conditions. From this preliminary analysis, it was possible to develop new Multi-Stage Constant-Current profiles, designed to improve the performance in terms of charging time and cells capacity retention with respect to a reference profile. Four new profiles were tested and compared to a reference. The results coming from the new profiles demonstrate a simultaneous improvement in terms of charging time and cycling life, showing the reliability of the implemented methodology in preventing Lithium plating. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lithium-Ion Batteries Aging Mechanisms, 2nd Edition)
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