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Crystals
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Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging
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Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging

A special issue of Crystals (ISSN 2073-4352). This special issue belongs to the section "Inorganic Crystalline Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2024) | Viewed by 7160

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Fei Qin

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Guest Editor
Institute of Electronics Packaging Technology and Reliability, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Interests: mechanical characterization of electronics packaging materials; reliability of advanced electronics packaging; process simulation and optimization of electronics manufacture
Dr. Yanwei Dai

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Guest Editor
Institute of Electronics Packaging Technology and Reliability, Faculty of Materials and Manufacturing, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
Interests: electronics packaging technology and reliability; fracture mechanics and structural integrity assessment; mechanics of advanced materials in electronics packaging
Dr. Si Chen

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Reliability Physics and Application of Electronic Component, The Fifth Electronics Research Institute of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, Guangzhou 510610, China
Interests: mechanics of materials and structures in electronic packaging; manufacturing and reliability in integrated packaging; microstructural and mechanical property characterization

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Advanced manufacturing and electronics packaging are rapidly progressing multidisciplinary fields involving materials science, electronics and electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, advanced manufacturing, etc., which have drawn the attention of researchers from all around the world. In particular focus is the mechanical performance of crystals, such as metals and semiconductor materials, adopted in advanced manufacturing and electronics packaging. One of the most crucial and challenging topics is the residual stress effects introduced during the manufacturing and fabrication processes, which can significantly affect the mechanical performance and the lifetime of materials under harsh and extreme conditions. Although residual stress effects on mechanics of material, structural integrity, durability, and reliability in advanced manufacturing and electronics packaging have gained enormous interest in recent years, accurate and efficient evaluations of residual stress effects are still paradigmatic in this field. In particular, along with the development of Moore’s law and More than Moore’s law, the size of materials adopted in advanced manufacturing and electronics packaging, as well as the size of transistors in microelectronics, have become smaller and smaller, which may be significantly influenced by residual stress. Developments in the field of semiconductors have improved human life. After decades of intense searching, the recent demands of carbon neutrality require the fields of semiconductor and industrial manufacturing to meet the standards of carbon reduction and energy saving. Thus, sustainable durability and high reliability issues have become more crucial for the fields of advanced manufacturing and electronic packaging technology. With these trends, the aim of this Special Issue is to report more recent advances regarding residual stress tests, evaluations, and simulations in related fields. Research is also welcome regarding the following related issues: residual stress effects on fracture, fatigue, and failure of materials in semiconductors and manufacturing. These currently open questions, as well as hot and recent topics related to residual stress effects, are all within the scope of this Special Issue. The present Special Issue, “Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging”, may become a status report summarizing the progress achieved in the last five years.

Prof. Dr. Fei Qin
Dr. Yanwei Dai
Dr. Si Chen
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Crystals is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • residual stress/strain
  • experimental test
  • finite element simulation
  • fracture/fatigue
  • failure mechanism
  • semiconductor
  • electronics packaging
  • advanced manufacturing
  • welding/weldment
  • machine learning
  • through silicon via
  • mechanical properties degradation
  • warpage
  • cracking
  • thermal stress
  • radio frequency
  • MEMS

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

20 pages, 9838 KiB  
Article
Failure Mechanism and Residual Stress Analysis of Crystal Materials for the Thermal Battery
by Wei Su, Ming Chen, Zhizhe Wang, Butian Zhong and Zhenhua Nie
Crystals 2024, 14(2), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14020198 - 19 Feb 2024
Viewed by 780
Abstract
This paper investigates the thermal battery as a research topic. We conducted an in-depth analysis of various thermal battery aspects, such as the cathode material CoS2 and electrolyte material morphology, crystal type, and interface state changes before and after service. The aim [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the thermal battery as a research topic. We conducted an in-depth analysis of various thermal battery aspects, such as the cathode material CoS2 and electrolyte material morphology, crystal type, and interface state changes before and after service. The aim was to explore the core reaction and main failure mechanisms of the thermal battery. Prior to the reaction, the thermal battery cathode and electrolyte material consisted of pure-phase CoS2 and a composition of MgO-LiF/LiBr/LiCl. After service, the cathode and electrolyte of the single thermal battery exhibited significant morphological alterations caused by the presence of a molten state. The cathode transformed from CoS2 to Co3S4 and Co9S8 together with the presence of a marginal quantity of Co monomers visible throughout the discharge process, which was confirmed by means of XRD and XPS analyses. After the reaction, the electrolyte material was primarily made up of LiF, LiBr, and LiCl while the crystal components remained largely unaltered, albeit with apparent morphological variations. As was deduced from the thermodynamic analysis, the cathode material’s decomposition temperature stood at 655 °C, exceeding the working temperature of the thermal battery (500 °C) by a considerable margin, which is indicative of outstanding thermal durability within the thermal battery’s operational temperature range. Furthermore, the discharge reaction of the positive electrode was incomplete, resulting in reduced CoS2 residue in the thermal battery monomer after service. The reaction yielded a combination of Co3S4, Co9S8, and small amounts of Co monomers, indicating possible inconsistencies in the phase composition of the pole piece during the reaction process. In this study, we examine the distribution of residual stress in the thermal battery under various operating conditions. The simulation results indicate that exposure to a 70 °C environment for 2 h causes the maximum residual stress of the battery, which had an initial temperature of 25 °C, to reach 0.26 GPa. The thermal battery subjected to an initial temperature of 25 °C exhibited a maximum residual stress of 0.42 GPa subsequent to a 2-hour exposure to a temperature of −50 °C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging)
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14 pages, 13338 KiB  
Article
Effect of Thermal Aging on the Reliability of Interconnected Nano-Silver Solder Joints
by Yangning Tian, Xiaodong Jian, Mingrui Zhao, Jiahao Liu, Xuanjun Dai, Bin Zhou and Xiaofeng Yang
Crystals 2023, 13(12), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13121630 - 24 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 941
Abstract
Due to the growing demand for ultra-high-density integrated circuits in the integrated circuit industry, flip-chip bonding (FCB) has become the mainstream solution for chip interconnection. In flip-chip bonding (FCB), however, alloy solder is no longer adequate to meet the high heat dissipation demands [...] Read more.
Due to the growing demand for ultra-high-density integrated circuits in the integrated circuit industry, flip-chip bonding (FCB) has become the mainstream solution for chip interconnection. In flip-chip bonding (FCB), however, alloy solder is no longer adequate to meet the high heat dissipation demands of high-power devices with over 100 kW/cm2 in power density due to its low reflow temperature. Nano-silver solder, on the other hand, exhibits superior thermal and electrical conductivity, making it an excellent alternative to traditional solder for FCB. This study explored nano-silver’s thermal reliability and electrical performance as a solder material. The following results were obtained through temperature cycle (with temperatures ranging from −55 to 150 °C) and high-temperature storage experiments (with applied temperatures of over 170 °C). The results indicate that as the duration of the high-temperature storage increased, the grain continued to coarsen, resulting in an average pore size transition from 0.004 to 0.072 μm2. A strong correlation coefficient of 0.9913 was observed between the duration of high-temperature exposure and the porosity within the time range of 0–200 h. Following the reliability test, the shear strength of the nano-silver interconnect samples showed varying degrees of decrease. The bonding effect with the nano-silver layer can be enhanced, and the thermal reliability can be improved by depositing Ni/Ag on the surface of Cu, making it less prone to cracking. Regarding the electrical performance, the square resistance of the nano-silver interconnect structures increased by 35% after the reliability test. This indicates a significant degradation in the electrical reliability of nano-silver interconnects under temperature stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging)
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14 pages, 6480 KiB  
Article
Research on the Mechanical Failure Risk Points of Ti/Cu/Ti/Au Metallization Layer
by Mingrui Zhao, Xiaodong Jian, Si Chen, Minghui Chen, Gang Wang, Tao Gong, Yangning Tian, Xiangjun Lu, Zhenbo Zhao and Xiaofeng Yang
Crystals 2023, 13(12), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13121625 - 23 Nov 2023
Viewed by 823
Abstract
The cohesive performance and durability of the bonding layer with semiconductor substrates are of paramount importance for realizing the high thermal conductivity capabilities of diamond. Utilizing electron beam evaporation and the room-temperature, low-pressure bonding process, robust adhesion between diamonds and silicon substrates has [...] Read more.
The cohesive performance and durability of the bonding layer with semiconductor substrates are of paramount importance for realizing the high thermal conductivity capabilities of diamond. Utilizing electron beam evaporation and the room-temperature, low-pressure bonding process, robust adhesion between diamonds and silicon substrates has been achieved through the application of the metal modification layer comprised of Ti/Cu/Ti/Au (5/300/5/50 nm). Characterization with optical microscopy and atomic force microscopy reveals the uniformity and absence of defects on the surface of the deposited layer. Observations through X-ray and scanning acoustic microscopy indicate no discernible bonding defects. Scanning electron microscopy observation and energy-dispersive spectroscopy analysis of the fracture surface show distinct fracture features on the silicon substrate surface, indicating that the bonding strength of the Ti/Cu/Ti/Au metallization layer surpasses that of the base material. Furthermore, the fracture surface exhibits the presence of Cu and trace amounts of Ti, suggesting that the fracture also occurs at the interface between Ti and Cu. Characterization of the metal modification layer using X-ray diffraction reveals significant lattice distortion in the Ti layer, leading to noticeable stress accumulation within the crystalline structure. Thermal–mechanical fatigue simulations of the Ti/Cu/Ti/Au metal modification layer indicate that, owing to the difference in the coefficient of thermal expansion, the stress exerted by the Cu layer on the Ti layer results in the accumulation of fatigue damage within the Ti layer, ultimately leading to a reduction in its strength and eventual failure. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging)
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16 pages, 7299 KiB  
Article
Residual Stress Testing and Simulation Analysis of Crystal Structures of Electronic Device Materials
by Ming Chen, Jiasheng Li, Wei Su, Zhenhua Nie, Butian Zhong and Xianshan Dong
Crystals 2023, 13(10), 1462; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13101462 - 5 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1008
Abstract
In this paper, we analyze the residual stress of different components of the crystal structures of electronic device materials following exposure to elevated temperatures using a combination of experimental tests and finite element simulations. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and LXRD micro-area residual stress analyzer [...] Read more.
In this paper, we analyze the residual stress of different components of the crystal structures of electronic device materials following exposure to elevated temperatures using a combination of experimental tests and finite element simulations. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and LXRD micro-area residual stress analyzer were employed to determine the residual strain and stress of the CBGA sample encapsulation cover and solder joints. Subsequently, the experimental data were utilized to verify the accuracy of the simulation. The discrepancy between experimental measurements and simulation outcomes of the residual stress following reflow soldering of CBGA-assembled micro-solder joints is below 14%. The analysis also included thermal warping deformation of the CBGA encapsulation cover and how the residual stress was influenced by the diameter, spacing, and height of the solder joints. The study reveals that the residual stress following reflow soldering of BGA solder joints is non-uniformly distributed within the array. Within a single solder joint, residual stress gradually increases in distribution from its middle to the point where it make contact with the PCB and chip, with the highest level of residual stress observed where the solder joint contacts the chip. The variation in material parameters, such as the coefficient of thermal expansion, is the primary cause of thermal warping deformation on the surface of CBGA encapsulation covers. Three primary factors significantly impact the residual stress on BGA solder joints: solder joint diameter, spacing, and height. The maximum value is inversely proportional to the height of the solder joints and the residual stress. Conversely, the diameter and spacing of the joints are positively proportional to the highest value. When the diameter of the solder joint is increased from 0.55 mm to 0.75 mm, the maximum residual stress in the BGA solder joint increases from 37.243 MPa to 36.835 MPa. Conversely, increasing the height of the solder joint from 0.36 mm to 0.44 mm reduces the stress from 39.776 MPa to 36.835 MPa. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging)
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20 pages, 12414 KiB  
Article
Modelling and Optimization of Continual Laser Joining Processes for Silicon Aluminum Alloy in Microwave Devices
by Song Wang, Ge Shi, Libo Zhao, Yanwei Dai, Tianyu Hou, Ying He, Ping Chen and Fei Qin
Crystals 2023, 13(4), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13040631 - 6 Apr 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1139
Abstract
Due to its higher energy and smaller heating area, laser joining technology is widely used in aluminum alloy welding and other industrial fields, which meets the solder sealing requirements for electronic packaging. According to experiments, cracks were prone to occur at the corners [...] Read more.
Due to its higher energy and smaller heating area, laser joining technology is widely used in aluminum alloy welding and other industrial fields, which meets the solder sealing requirements for electronic packaging. According to experiments, cracks were prone to occur at the corners and spot-welding positions near the weld. In this paper, the depth and width of the melt pool were measured experimentally, and the results were used to calibrate and validate the heat source model. An empirical relationship between heat source parameters and melt pool morphology is presented. The heat source model of laser deep penetration welding was established under the same experimental conditions. And the results were in agreement with the experimental results. The finite element method was used to numerically simulate the welding process of a 50%SiAl shell and a 27%SiAl cover plate. The effects of different spot-welding sequences and numbers on the residual stress and cracking possibility of laser welded samples were analyzed. The results show that under sequential spot-welding, when the amount of spot-welding is increased, the stress peak value decreases. Compared with sequential spot welding and side-by-side spot welding, the spot-welding sequence of diagonal points first, and then side-by-side spot welding, can effectively reduce the residual stress. This research enables us to provide some guidelines in terms of studying the reliability issues of microwave devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging)
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20 pages, 33103 KiB  
Article
The Reliability of the Complex Components under Temperature Cycling, Random Vibration, and Combined Loading for Airborne Applications
by Hao Cui, Wenchao Tian, Hanyang Xu, Heng Wang, Jiabo Huang, Chunxi Peng and Zhiqiang Chen
Crystals 2023, 13(3), 473; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13030473 - 9 Mar 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1557
Abstract
The electronic devices suffer great vibration and temperature fluctuation in an airborne environment, which has been always a big challenge for reliability design. In this paper, the reliability of the complex electronic components for airborne applications under a thermal cycling test, random vibration [...] Read more.
The electronic devices suffer great vibration and temperature fluctuation in an airborne environment, which has been always a big challenge for reliability design. In this paper, the reliability of the complex electronic components for airborne applications under a thermal cycling test, random vibration and combined loading has been investigated by experiment tests and finite element simulation. The fatigue life and failure location under different loadings have been compared and discussed, respectively. The results indicated that the combined fatigue life was much shorter than a single-factor experiment. The failed solder joints mostly appeared at the interface between the solder and the copper pad on the component side and the location was at the corner for all three harsh environment tests. Nevertheless, several differences could be observed. For temperature cycling, all the specimens failed due to the increase in daisy chain resistance rather than the open circuit for the combined loading test. That is because the degeneration of the solder caused by temperature variation led to lower stress levels and fatigue life. Moreover, the pins fractured at the welding regions have been observed. The modified Coffin—Manson model, Miner’s linear fatigue damage criterion and Steinberg’s model and rapid life-prediction approach were used to predict the fatigue life under temperature cycling, random vibration and combined loading, respectively. With these methods, the accurate numerical models could be developed and validated by experiment results. Thanks to the simulation, the design time could be effectively shortened and the weak point could be determined. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Residual Stress Effects in Advanced Manufacturing and Electronics Packaging)
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