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A special issue of Forests (ISSN 1999-4907). This special issue belongs to the section "Forest Ecophysiology and Biology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 January 2019) | Viewed by 45659

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Fan-Rui Meng

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management, Univeristy of New Brunsiwck, Fredericton, NB, Canada
Interests: hydrology; ecological modelling; watershed management; GIS and landscape analysis; forest growth and yield models
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Altaf Arain

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Guest Editor

School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
Interests: hydrometeorology; forest hydrology; evaporation; forest carbon cycle; managed forests; afforestation; eddy covariance technique; ecosystem models; land surface atmosphere interaction models

Prof. Dr. Qiang Li

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Guest Editor

College of Forestry, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
Interests: land cover and land use change; climate change; hydrological modelling; baseflow separation; surface and groundwater interactions; streamflow depletion assessment; environmental flow needs

Prof. Michael Pisaric

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Guest Editor

Department of Geography and Tourism Studies, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, ON L2S 3A1, Canada
Interests: climate change; dendrochronology; paleolimnology; arctic ecosystems; boreal ecosystems; landscape evolution; disturbance regimes; forest fires; ecosystem change

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Changes in forest area and forest types, caused by nature and anthropogenic disturbances, have significant impacts on hydrological processes at the watershed level. Natural forest disturbances (e.g., wildfire and insect infestation) and anthropogenic interventions (e.g., forest harvest, plantation and urbanization) have caused dramatic changes in forests across the globe. Anticipated climate change will have significant impacts on forests by altering the extent and frequency of natural disturbances, and will interact with anthropogenic disturbances. Climate change and changes in forest cover are considered as the most important drivers for hydrological processes in forested watersheds. Understanding how two drivers interactively influence hydrological processes, water quality, and ecosystems are pivotal for sustainable water management and ecosystem function. We would like to dedicate a Special Issue of Forests to discuss the interactions between forests and climate hydrology at the watershed level. We welcome research papers focused on the effects of forests and change in forests on hydrological regimes, water quality, and aquatic habitats in watersheds of different sizes. We encourage submissions dealing with field observations, as well as statistical and hydrological modeling for addressing future scientific challenges.

Prof. Fan-Rui Meng
Prof. Altaf Arain
Mr. Qiang Li
Prof. Michael Pisaric
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Forests is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Forest Hydrology
Climate Change
Watershed Management
Hydrological Modeling
Water Quality
Cumulative Effects
Stream Discharge

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 2310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Woody Litter Increases Headwater Stream Metal Export Ratio in an Alpine Forest

by Ziyi Liang, Fuzhong Wu, Xiangyin Ni, Bo Tan, Li Zhang, Zhenfeng Xu, Junyi Hu and Kai Yue

Forests 2019, 10(5), 379; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10050379 - 30 Apr 2019

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2852

Abstract

Headwater streams have low productivity and are closely linked to forest ecosystems, which input a large amount of plant litter into streams. Most current studies have focused on the decomposition process of plant litter in streams, and the effects of non-woody and woody litter on metal transfer, accumulation, and storage in streams are poorly understood. Here, we addressed how non-woody and woody litter affect metals in headwater streams in an alpine forest on the Eastern Tibetan Plateau. This area is the source of many rivers and plays an important regulatory role in the regional climate and water conservation. Through comparisons of five metal concentrations, exports and storage in headwater streams with different input conditions of plant litter, our results showed that the input of woody litter could significantly increase flow discharge and increase the metal export ratio in the water. Similarly, the input of non-woody litter could reduce the metal concentration in the water and facilitate the stable storage of metals in the sediment in the headwater streams. Therefore, allochthonous non-woody and woody litter can affect the concentration of metals in water and sediment, and the transfer and accumulation of metals from upstream to downstream in headwater streams. This study provides basic data and new findings for understanding the effects of allochthonous plant litter on the accumulation and storage of metals in headwater forest streams and may provide new ideas for assessing and managing water quality in headwater streams in alpine forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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13 pages, 2137 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Canopy Can Efficiently Filter Trace Metals in Deposited Precipitation in a Subalpine Spruce Plantation

by Siyi Tan, Hairong Zhao, Wanqin Yang, Bo Tan, Kai Yue, Yu Zhang, Fuzhong Wu and Xiangyin Ni

Forests 2019, 10(4), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10040318 - 07 Apr 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3081

Abstract

Trace metals can enter natural regions with low human disturbance through atmospheric circulation; however, little information is available regarding the filtering efficiency of trace metals by forest canopies. In this study, a representative subalpine spruce plantation was selected to investigate the net throughfall fluxes of eight trace metals (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Al, Pb, Cd and Cr) under a closed canopy and gap-edge canopy from August 2015 to July 2016. Over the one-year observation, the annual fluxes of Al, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Cr and Pb in the deposited precipitation were 7.29 kg·ha⁻¹, 2.30 kg·ha⁻¹, 7.02 kg·ha⁻¹, 0.16 kg·ha⁻¹, 0.19 kg·ha⁻¹, 0.06 kg·ha⁻¹, 0.56 kg·ha⁻¹ and 0.24 kg·ha⁻¹, respectively. The annual net throughfall fluxes of these trace metals were −1.73 kg·ha⁻¹, −0.90 kg·ha⁻¹, −1.68 kg·ha⁻¹, 0.03 kg·ha⁻¹, −0.03 kg·ha⁻¹, −0.02 kg·ha⁻¹, −0.09 kg·ha⁻¹ and −0.08 kg·ha⁻¹, respectively, under the gap-edge canopy and 1.59 kg·ha⁻¹, −1.13 kg·ha⁻¹, −1.65 kg·ha⁻¹, 0.10 kg·ha⁻¹, −0.04 kg·ha⁻¹, −0.03 kg·ha⁻¹, −0.26 kg·ha⁻¹ and −0.15 kg·ha⁻¹, respectively, under the closed canopy. The closed canopy displayed a greater filtering effect of the trace metals from precipitation than the gap-edge canopy in this subalpine forest. In the rainy season, the net filtering ratio of trace metals ranged from −66.01% to 89.05% for the closed canopy and from −52.32% to 33.09% for the gap-edge canopy. In contrast, the net filtering ratio of all trace metals exceeded 50.00% for the closed canopy in the snowy season. The results suggest that most of the trace metals moving through the forest canopy are filtered by canopy in the subalpine forest. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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11 pages, 8160 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Radial Growth of Schrenk Spruce (Picea schrenkiana Fisch. et Mey.) Records the Hydroclimatic Changes in the Chu River Basin over the Past 175 Years

by Ruibo Zhang, Bakytbek Ermenbaev, Tongwen Zhang, Mamtimin Ali, Li Qin and Rysbek Satylkanov

Forests 2019, 10(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10030223 - 02 Mar 2019

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2766

Abstract

The Chu River is one of the most important rivers in arid Central Asia. Its discharge is affected by climate change. Here, we establish a tree-ring chronology for the upper Chu River Basin and analyze the relationships between radial growth, climate, and discharge. The results show that the radial growth of Schrenk spruce (Picea schrenkiana Fisch. et Mey.) is controlled by moisture. We also reconstruct a 175-year standardized precipitation-evapotranspiration index (SPEI) for the Chu River Basin. A comparison of the reconstructed and observed indices reveal that 39.5% of the variance occurred during the calibration period of 1952–2014. The SPEI reconstruction and discharge variability of the Chu River show consistent long-term change. They also show that the Chu River Basin became increasingly dry between the 1840s and the 1960s, with a significant drought during the 1970s. A long and rapid wetting period occurred between the 1970s and the 2000s, and was followed by increasing drought since 2004. The change in the SPEI in the Chu River Basin is consistent with records of long-term precipitation, SPEI and Palmer Drought Severity Indices (PDSI) in other proximate regions of the western Tianshan Mountains. The hydroclimatic change of the Chu River Basin may be associated with westerly wind. This study is helpful for disaster prevention and water resource management in arid central Asia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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15 pages, 4383 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contrasting Differences in Responses of Streamflow Regimes between Reforestation and Fruit Tree Planting in a Subtropical Watershed of China

by Zhipeng Xu, Wenfei Liu, Xiaohua Wei, Houbao Fan, Yizao Ge, Guanpeng Chen and Jin Xu

Forests 2019, 10(3), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10030212 - 27 Feb 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2475

Abstract

Fruit tree planting is a common practice for alleviating poverty and restoring degraded environment in developing countries. Yet, its environmental effects are rarely assessed. The Jiujushui watershed (261.4 km²), located in the subtropical Jiangxi Province of China, was selected to assess responses of several flow regime components on both reforestation and fruit tree planting. Three periods of forest changes, including a reference (1961 to 1985), reforestation (1986 to 2000) and fruit tree planting (2001 to 2016) were identified for assessment. Results suggest that the reforestation significantly decreased the average magnitude of high flow by 8.78%, and shortened high flow duration by 2.2 days compared with the reference. In contrast, fruit tree planting significantly increased the average magnitude of high flow by 27.43%. For low flows, reforestation significantly increased the average magnitude by 46.38%, and shortened low flow duration by 8.8 days, while the fruit tree planting had no significant impact on any flow regime components of low flows. We conclude that reforestation had positive impacts on high and low flows, while to our surprise, fruit tree planting had negative effects on high flows, suggesting that large areas of fruit tree planting may potentially become an important driver for some negative hydrological effects in our study area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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14 pages, 3083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two Centuries-Long Streamflow Reconstruction Inferred from Tree Rings for the Middle Reaches of the Weihe River in Central China

by Na Liu, Guang Bao, Yu Liu and Hans W. Linderholm

Forests 2019, 10(3), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10030208 - 26 Feb 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2366

Abstract

Water source is one of the most important concerns for regional society and economy development, especially in the Weihe River basin which is located in the marginal zone of the Asian summer monsoon. Due to the weakness of short instrumental records, the variations of streamflow during the long-term natural background are difficult to access. Herein, the average June–July streamflow variability in the middle reaches of the Weihe River was identified based on tree-ring width indices of Chines pine (Pinus tabulaeformis Carr.) from the northern slope of the Qinling Mountains in central China. Our model could explain the variance of 39.3% in the observed streamflow period from 1940 to 1970 AD. There were 30 extremely low years and 26 high years which occurred in our reconstruction for the effective span of 1820 to 2005. Several common dryness and wetness periods appeared in this reconstructed streamflow, and other tree-ring precipitation series suggested the coherence of hydroclimate fluctuation over the Weihe River basin. Some significant peaks in cycles implied the linkages of natural forcing on the average June–July streamflow of the Weihe River, such as the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) activities. Spatial correlation results between streamflow and sea surface temperature in the northern Pacific Ocean, as well as extremely low/high years responding to the El Niño/La Nina events, supported the teleconnections. The current 186-year streamflow reconstruction placed regional twentieth-century drought and moisture events in a long-term perspective in the Weihe River basin, and provided useful information for regional water resource safety and forest management, particularly under climate warming conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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16 pages, 2429 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Cumulative Effects of Forest Disturbance and Climate Variability on Streamflow in the Deadman River Watershed

by Krysta Giles-Hansen, Qiang Li and Xiaohua Wei

Forests 2019, 10(2), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10020196 - 22 Feb 2019

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4176

Abstract

Climatic variability and cumulative forest cover change are the two dominant factors affecting hydrological variability in forested watersheds. Separating the relative effects of each factor on streamflow is gaining increasing attention. This study adds to the body of literature by quantifying the relative contributions of those two drivers to the changes in annual mean flow, low flow, and high flow in a large forested snow dominated watershed, the Deadman River watershed (878 km²) in the Southern Interior of British Columbia, Canada. Over the study period of 1962 to 2012, the cumulative effects of forest disturbance significantly affected the annual mean streamflow. The effects became statistically significant in 1989 at the cumulative forest disturbance level of 12.4% of the watershed area. The modified double mass curve and sensitivity-based methods consistently revealed that forest disturbance and climate variability both increased annual mean streamflow during the disturbance period (1989–2012), with an average increment of 14 mm and 6 mm, respectively. The paired-year approach was used to further investigate the relative contributions to low and high flows. Our analysis showed that low and high flow increased significantly by 19% and 58%, respectively over the disturbance period (p < 0.05). We conclude that forest disturbance and climate variability have significantly increased annual mean flow, low flow and high flow over the last 50 years in a cumulative and additive manner in the Deadman River watershed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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18 pages, 5315 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Attribution Analysis for Runoff Change on Multiple Scales in a Humid Subtropical Basin Dominated by Forest, East China

by Qinli Yang, Shasha Luo, Hongcai Wu, Guoqing Wang, Dawei Han, Haishen Lü and Junming Shao

Forests 2019, 10(2), 184; https://doi.org/10.3390/f10020184 - 20 Feb 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3470

Abstract

Attributing runoff change to different drivers is vital in order to better understand how and why runoff varies, and to further support decision makers on water resources planning and management. Most previous works attributed runoff change in the arid or semi-arid areas to climate variability and human activity on an annual scale. However, attribution results may differ greatly according to different climatic zones, decades, temporal scales, and different contributors. This study aims to quantitatively attribute runoff change in a humid subtropical basin (the Qingliu River basin, East China) to climate variability, land-use change, and human activity on multiple scales over different periods by using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model. The results show that runoff increased during 1960–2012 with an abrupt change occurring in 1984. Annual runoff in the post-change period (1985–2012) increased by 16.05% (38.05 mm) relative to the pre-change period (1960–1984), most of which occurred in the winter and early spring (March). On the annual scale, climate variability, human activity, and land-use change (mainly for forest cover decrease) contributed 95.36%, 4.64%, and 12.23% to runoff increase during 1985–2012, respectively. On the seasonal scale, human activity dominated runoff change (accounting for 72.11%) in the dry season during 1985–2012, while climate variability contributed the most to runoff change in the wet season. On the monthly scale, human activity was the dominant contributor to runoff variation in all of the months except for January, May, July, and August during 1985–2012. Impacts of climate variability and human activity on runoff during 2001–2012 both became stronger than those during 1985–2000, but counteracted each other. The findings should help understandings of runoff behavior in the Qingliu River and provide scientific support for local water resources management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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21 pages, 7855 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Hydrological Impact of Extreme Weather-Induced Forest Disturbances in a Tropical Experimental Watershed in South China

by Yiping Hou, Mingfang Zhang, Shirong Liu, Pengsen Sun, Lihe Yin, Taoli Yang, Yide Li, Qiang Li and Xiaohua Wei

Forests 2018, 9(12), 734; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9120734 - 24 Nov 2018

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 3911

Abstract

Tropical forests are frequently disturbed by extreme weather events including tropical cyclones and cold waves, which can not only yield direct impact on hydrological processes but also produce indirect effect on hydrology by disturbing growth and structures of tropical forests. However, the hydrological response to extreme weather-induced forest disturbances especially in tropical forested watersheds has been less evaluated. In this study, a tropical experimental watershed in Hainan Province, China, was selected to investigate the hydrological responses to extreme weather-induced forest disturbances by use of a single watershed approach and the paired-year approach. Key results are: (1) extreme weather-induced forest disturbances (e.g., typhoon and cold wave) generally had a positive effect on streamflow in the study watershed, while climate variability either yielded a negative effect or a positive effect in different periods; (2) the response of low flows to forest discussion was more pronounced; (3) the relative contribution of forest disturbances to annual streamflow (48.6%) was higher than that of climate variability (43.0%) from 1995 to 2005. Given the increasing extreme weather with climate change and their possible catastrophic effects on tropical forests and hydrology in recent decades, these findings are essential for future adaptive water resources and forest management in the tropical forested watersheds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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14 pages, 1950 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of the Water-Storage Capacity of Bryophytes along an Altitudinal Gradient from Temperate Forests to the Alpine Zone

by Yoshitaka Oishi

Forests 2018, 9(7), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9070433 - 18 Jul 2018

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 6157

Abstract

Forests play crucial roles in regulating the amount and timing of streamflow through the water storage function. Bryophytes contribute to this increase in water storage owing to their high water-holding capacity; however, they might be severely damaged by climate warming. This study examined the water storage capacity (WSC) of bryophytes in forests in the mountainous areas of Japan. Sampling plots (100 m²) were established along two mountainous trails at 200-m altitude intervals. Bryophytes were sampled in these plots using 100-cm² quadrats, and their WSC was evaluated according to the maximum amount of water retained in them (WSC-quadrat). The total amount of water in bryophytes within each plot (WSC-plot) was then calculated. The WSC-quadrat was affected by the forms of bryophyte communities (life forms) and their interactions, further influencing soil moisture. The WSC-quadrat did not show any significant trend with altitude, whereas, the highest WSC-plot values were obtained in subalpine forests. These changes to WSC-plot were explained by large differences in bryophyte cover with altitude. As the WSC controlled by the life forms might be vulnerable to climate warming, it can provide an early indicator of how bryophyte WCS and associated biological activities are influenced. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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18 pages, 2571 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quantifying Impacts of Forest Recovery on Water Yield in Two Large Watersheds in the Cold Region of Northeast China

by Liangliang Duan and Tijiu Cai

Forests 2018, 9(7), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9070392 - 03 Jul 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3423

Abstract

In northern China, large-scale reforestations were implemented to restore the ecosystem functions (e.g., hydrology function). However, few studies have been conducted to quantify the relative contributions of forest recovery to water yield in boreal forest region across the globe. In this study, the impacts of forest recovery on the changes in mean annual water yield were assessed in two large forested watersheds in the boreal forest region of northeast China using three different approaches. As commonly considered, the results confirmed that forest recovery was the dominant driver of the reductions in annual water yield in the two watersheds in the past three decades (1987–2016), explaining 64.3% (15.4 mm) and 87.4% (40.7 mm) of variations in annual water yield for Upper Tahe watershed (UTH) and Xinancha watershed (XNC), respectively. By contrast, climate variability played minor role in annual water yield variation, explaining only 35.7% (8.5 mm) and 12.6% (7.2 mm) for UTH and XNC, respectively. The response differences between the two watersheds may mainly be attributed to differences in forest type, topography and climate regimes. This study provided important insight into sustainable forest and water resources management in the region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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20 pages, 3350 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial and Temporal Patterns in Nonstationary Flood Frequency across a Forest Watershed: Linkage with Rainfall and Land Use Types

by Xu-dong Huang, Ling Wang, Pei-pei Han and Wen-chuan Wang

Forests 2018, 9(6), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9060339 - 08 Jun 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3207

Abstract

Understanding the response of flood frequency to impact factors could help water resource managers make better decisions. This study applied an integrated approach of a hydrological model and partial least squares (PLS) regression to quantify the influences of rainfall and forest landscape on flood frequency dynamics in the Upper Honganjian watershed (981 km²) in China. The flood events of flood seasons in return periods from two to 100 years, wet seasons in return periods from two to 20 years, and dry seasons in return periods from two to five years show similar dynamics. Our study suggests that rainfall and the forest landscape are pivotal factors triggering flood event alterations in lower return periods, that flood event dynamics in higher return periods are attributed to hydrological regulations of water infrastructures, and that the influence of rainfall on flood events is much greater than that of land use in the dry season. This effective and simple approach could be applied to a variety of other watersheds for which a digital spatial database is available, hydrological data are lacking, and the hydroclimate context is variable. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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15 pages, 8859 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biomass Carbon Sequestration Potential by Riparian Forest in the Tarim River Watershed, Northwest China: Implication for the Mitigation of Climate Change Impact

by Tayierjiang Aishan, Florian Betz, Ümüt Halik, Bernd Cyffka and Aihemaitijiang Rouzi

Forests 2018, 9(4), 196; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9040196 - 10 Apr 2018

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6030

Abstract

Carbon management in forests has become the most important agenda of the first half of the 21st century in China in the context of the mitigation of climate change impact. As the main producer of the inland river basin ecosystem in arid region of Northwest China, the desert riparian forest maintains the regional environment and also holds a great significance in regulating the regional/global carbon cycle. In this study, we estimated the total biomass, carbon storage, as well as monetary ecosystem service values of desert riparian Populus euphratica Oliv. in the lower reaches of the Tarim River based on terrestrial forest inventory data within an area of 100 ha (100 plots with sizes of 100 m × 100 m) and digitized tree data within 1000 ha (with 10 m × 10 m grid) using a statistical model of biomass estimation against tree height (TH) and diameter at breast height (DBH) data. Our results show that total estimated biomass and carbon storage of P. euphratica within the investigated area ranged from 3.00 to 4317.00 kg/ha and from 1.82 to 2158.73 kg/ha, respectively. There was a significant negative relationship (p < 0.001) between biomass productivity of these forests and distance to the river and groundwater level. Large proportions of biomass (64% of total biomass) are estimated within 200 m distance to the river where groundwater is relatively favorable for vegetation growth and biomass production. However, our data demonstrated that total biomass showed a sharp decreasing trend with increasing distance to the river; above 800 m distance, less biomass and carbon storage were estimated. The total monetary value of the ecosystem service “carbon storage” provided by P. euphratica was estimated to be $6.8 × 10⁴ USD within the investigated area, while the average monetary value was approximately $70 USD per ha, suggesting that the riparian forest ecosystem in the Tarim River Basin should be considered a relevant regional carbon sink. The findings of this study help to establish a better understanding of the spatial distribution pattern of P. euphratica forest under water scarcity and can also provide an alternative approach to local decision-makers for efficient and precise assessment of forest carbon resources for emission reduction programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Hydrology and Watershed)

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