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Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World

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A special issue of Insects (ISSN 2075-4450). This special issue belongs to the section "Insect Societies and Sociality".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2023) | Viewed by 22159

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Dr. Alison Gray

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Guest Editor

Department of Mathematics & Statistics, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Interests: honey bees; colony losses and risk factors; bee health and management; statistics; morphometry; Apis mellifera subspecies; citizen science

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Honey bees are the most important pollinators of food crops across the world, as well as pollinating wild plants. As honey bee health and survival are so essential for pollination and the ecosystem, losses of honey bee colonies cause concern. Widespread and well-publicised losses of honey bees in winter 2006/2007, characterised as Colony Collapse Disorder, triggered greatly increased research into colony losses but also raised levels of awareness of honey bees and the environment. Concerns about the environment, ecology, biodiversity and sustainability, and associated publicity about the plight of honey bees have led to many new beekeepers becoming active. Therefore, the study of colony losses generally, and monitoring of levels of colony losses, has become an ongoing core part of honey bee research, for example, through the COLOSS research association, the SOLATINA network in Latin America, and in numerous other research efforts across the world.

For this Special Issue of Insects, relevant articles may provide an overview of colony loss rates in a particular country or group of countries, investigate patterns of colony loss, assess risk factors and stressors of honey bees, including environmental issues, discuss management practices to reduce losses, or control of pests and diseases, address beekeepers’ concerns for their bees, or study losses/survival of feral bees, for example. However, these topics are not exhaustive, and contributed papers are invited on any areas relevant to honey bee colony losses, whether winter losses or annual losses.

Dr. Alison Gray
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Insects is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

honey bees
bee mortality
health and wellbeing
colony losses
risk factors for colony loss
beekeeping
management practices
environmental threats
pests and diseases

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 2023 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Survey Results of Honey Bee Colony Losses in Winter in China (2009–2021)

by Jiao Tang, Congcong Ji, Wei Shi, Songkun Su, Yunbo Xue, Jinshan Xu, Xiao Chen, Yazhou Zhao and Chao Chen

Insects 2023, 14(6), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14060554 - 14 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1511

Abstract

There is growing concern that massive loss of honey bees can cause serious negative effects on biodiversity and ecosystems. Surveys of colony losses have been performed worldwide to monitor the dynamic changes and health status of honey bee colonies. Here, we present the results of surveys regarding winter colony losses from 21 provinces in China from 2009 to 2021, with a total of 1,744,324 colonies managed by 13,704 beekeepers. The total colony losses were low (9.84%; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 9.60–10.08%) but varied among years, provinces, and scales of apiaries. As little is known about the overwintering mortality of Apis cerana, in this study, we surveyed and compared the loss rates between Apis mellifera and A. cerana in China. We found colonies of A. mellifera suffered significantly lower losses than A. cerana in China. Larger apiaries resulted in higher losses in A. mellifera, whereas the opposite was observed in A. cerana. Furthermore, we used generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMMs) to evaluate the effects of potential risk factors on winter colony losses and found that the operation size, species, migration, migration×species interaction, and queen problems were significantly related to the loss rates. New queens can increase their colony overwintering survival. Migratory beekeepers and large operations reported lower loss rates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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20 pages, 1686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Colony Loss Rates and Honey Bee Management in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Results of a Survey of Beekeepers

by Abdulmajeed Barrak Albarrak and Alison Gray

Insects 2023, 14(6), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14060513 - 01 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1322

Abstract

There is high demand for honey in Saudi Arabia, honey bees make a valuable contribution to agriculture and the economy, and therefore it is important to know levels of colony loss and potential reasons for losses. While there is much research into honey bee colony losses worldwide, little is known about colony losses in Saudi Arabia, management practices or beekeeping experience there. The aims of this work were to address this knowledge gap. Results of a survey of beekeepers in southwest Saudi Arabia conducted in summer 2018 are presented, including colony losses in five different seasons. Data collection involved face-to-face interviews, supplemented by an online survey, using a purpose-designed questionnaire. Responses were obtained from 109 beekeepers, all male, managing 135 to 1700 colonies, with 2 to 45 years of beekeeping experience. Most (73.1%) respondents mainly kept local hybrid bees, while 25.9% mainly kept Apis mellifera jemenitica. Honey yields per colony varied much more between beekeepers than between bee races. A high proportion (83.5%) of beekeepers reported losing colonies over the period studied. The reported colony loss rate was significantly higher in summer than in other seasons, but still low. The overall proportion of colonies lost was 11.4% in summer 2017 and was lowest in spring 2018 (6.6%). The main reported causes of loss were Varroa destructor and disease. Most beekeepers (88.0%) treated against the Varroa mite, although only one method was reported, tau-fluvalinate as Apistan strips, and only 41.7% used a screened bottom board. The results establish a benchmark for future beekeeper surveys in Saudi Arabia and other environmentally similar countries where colony losses are of interest in all seasons of the year. Informing and supporting Saudi beekeepers concerning Varroa monitoring and treatment and optimal hive management could result in fewer losses, higher honey yields, potential to market organic honey and a greater share of the domestic honey market. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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10 pages, 438 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Honey Bee Colony Losses in Mexico’s Semi-Arid High Plateau for the Winters 2016–2017 to 2021–2022

by Carlos Aurelio Medina-Flores, Marco López-Carlos, Octavio Carrillo-Muro and Alison Gray

Insects 2023, 14(5), 453; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14050453 - 11 May 2023

Viewed by 1683

Abstract

The objective of this study was to estimate the loss rates of honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies in six consecutive winters (2016–2017 to 2021–2022) in five states of the semi-arid high plateau region of Mexico, as well as study the factors associated with these losses. The survey included data from 544 beekeepers and 75,341 colonies. The colony loss rate differs significantly (p < 0.0001) between the winters analyzed and fluctuates between 14.9% and 30%, with an average of 22%. Colony losses were unaffected (p > 0.05) by migratory beekeeping practice and operation size, but losses were significantly affected by Varroa monitoring and control (p ≤ 0.001). The types of loss differ among the winters analyzed. In the winters of 2016–2017 to 2018–2019, beekeepers attributed higher loss rates to unresolved problems related to the queen (e.g., a queenless colony, poor laying), but in the winters of 2019–2020 to 2021–2022, the highest loss rate was the result of problems such as diseases, poisoning, and absconding (leading to dead colonies or empty hives). The results reveal high loss rates in the region studied, as reported by beekeepers from other countries. It is suggested that strategies should be implemented to improve the quality of queens, the control of varroasis and other diseases, and the degree of Africanization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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15 pages, 2135 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Four-Year Overview of Winter Colony Losses in Greece: Citizen Science Evidence That Transitioning to Organic Beekeeping Practices Reduces Colony Losses

by Evangelia Kagiali, Maria Kokoli, Philippos Vardakas, Georgios Goras, Fani Hatjina and Solenn Patalano

Insects 2023, 14(2), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects14020193 - 15 Feb 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2458

Abstract

The honey bee is one of the most important pollinators with a close relationship to humans. The questionnaire from the non-governmental association “COLOSS”, answered by beekeepers around the world, is a valuable tool for monitoring and analyzing factors involved in overwintering losses, as well as for understanding the evolution of the beekeeping sector over the years. Between 2018–2021, Greece’s participation in this survey involved collecting data from 752 beekeepers and 81,903 hives, from almost the whole country, with a stable balance between professional/non-professional participants and hives, providing a solid representation of the beekeeping practices and winter losses during this period. The results of this study identify a transition towards more natural beekeeping practices concomitant with a significant decrease in winter losses (average losses in 2018: 22.3% and 2019: 24%, dropped in 2020: 14.4% and 2021: 15.3%). Indeed, some factors, such as the increased use of natural landscapes for honey production (from 66.7% usage in 2018 to 76.3% in 2021) and the reduction in the exclusive use of synthetic acaricides (from 24.7% usage in 2018 to 6.7% in 2021) seem to have a significant impact on hive survival. Although these correlations remain to be confirmed experimentally, our study shows that Greek beekeepers follow recommendations and policies toward more sustainable practices. In the future, these trends could be further analyzed and integrated into training programs to strengthen the cooperation and information exchange between citizens and science. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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10 pages, 997 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Two Faces of the Screened Bottom Boards—An Ambiguous Influence on the Honey Bee Winter Colony Loss Rate

by Ewa Danuta Mazur, Michał Czopowicz and Anna Maria Gajda

Insects 2022, 13(12), 1128; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13121128 - 07 Dec 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1510

Abstract

We conducted a citizen science survey on the winter honey bee colony losses in Poland from 2017/18 to 2019/20 to determine the influence of the use of screened bottom boards on the winter colony losses due to various causes. A total of 1035 beekeepers with 40,003 colonies reported valid data. The overall winter colony loss rate ranged from 10.7% to 13.9%, and in every year, the overall winter colony loss rate was higher than 10% (which is considered as acceptable in Poland). The study reveals that the use of screened bottom boards was associated with reduced overall loss rate. However, the nature of this relationship was not the same in terms of all types of colony losses: while the use of screened bottom boards was associated with a reduced mortality rate (management-related colony loss rate due to dead colonies) in which the empty hives were observed (colony depopulation syndrome, CDS), it was associated with an increased mortality rate in which the lack of food was observed (starvation). Given that in our study the role of CDS in the overall colony loss rate was 2.5-fold higher than the role of starvation, the final influence of the use of screened bottom boards on the overall colony loss rate turned out to be beneficial. Given the well-known beneficial role of screened bottom boards in varroosis control, they are highly recommended in beekeeping practices in Poland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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12 pages, 1294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Some Considerations about Winter Colony Losses in Italy According to the Coloss Questionnaire

by Franco Mutinelli, Anna Pinto, Luciana Barzon and Marica Toson

Insects 2022, 13(11), 1059; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13111059 - 16 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1283

Abstract

The Italian beekeeping industry has grown steadily during the last decade, according to data from the national beekeeping registry, which came into existence in February 2015. Winter colony losses remain a matter of concern for beekeepers in Italy, and administration of the questionnaire defined by the Coloss Association could contribute to a better understanding of this phenomenon. To evaluate the percentage trends over time in honeybee colony losses arising from various causes, we used the quasi-binomial generalized linear modelling (GzLM) approach, taking the year as an independent variable. We set our level of significance at 5% and performed the data analysis only for the seven regions that sent data continuously from 2014 to 2020. We considered the percentage of losses due to queen-related problems, natural disasters, and dead or empty colonies, given that these questions remained unchanged over the years. The survey also revealed that the percentage trend for respondents using drone brood removal showed a significant increase. In general, the percentage of colony losses due to queen-related problems remained lower than 8%, and the percentage of colony losses associated with natural disasters was very low (<2%). The mean percentages of losses due to dead or empty colonies ranged from 6 to 17% in the considered period. In addition, we took account of the responses relating to treatments against Varroa mite infestation, given the importance attributed to this honeybee parasite. Unlike the other variables, we calculated the percentages related to the types of beekeeper treatments against Varroa destructor based on the respondents, not on the colonies. What emerged was that almost every beekeeper used at least one type of treatment against V. destructor. In general, the trend of respondents appeared stable at 0.3% during the last four years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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18 pages, 2916 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Vitellogenin (Vg) and Stress Protein (HSP 70) in Honey Bee (Apis mellifera anatoliaca) Groups under Different Diets Linked with Physico-Chemical, Antioxidant and Fatty and Amino Acid Profiles

by Aybike Sarioğlu-Bozkurt, Erkan Topal, Nazmiye Güneş, Engin Üçeş, Mihaiela Cornea-Cipcigan, İlknur Coşkun, Lucian Cuibus and Rodica Mărgăoan

Insects 2022, 13(11), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13110985 - 26 Oct 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2652

Abstract

Honey bee colonies are often subjected to diseases, nutrition quality, temperature and other stresses depending on environmental and climatic conditions. As a result of malnutrition, the level of Vg protein decreases, leading to overwintering losses. The Vg values must be high for a successful wintering, especially before wintering. If good nutrition is not reached, the long winter period may cause an increase in colony losses. Supplementary feeding is essential for colony sustainability when floral resources are insufficient, as in recent years with the emerging climate changes. Furthermore, quality food sources or nutrients are significant for maintaining honey bee health and longevity. This study examined the changes in HSP 70 and Vg proteins in 6 groups of 48 colonies fed with five different nutrients. The fatty acids that are present in the highest amount in Cistus creticus (Pink rock-rose), Papaver somniferum (Opium poppy) and mixed pollen samples were linoleic, palmitic and cis-9-oleic acids. The highest values in proline, lysine and glutamic acid were determined in C. creticus pollen. Regarding the P. somniferum pollen, the highest values were observed in lysine, proline, glutamic and aspartic acids. The highest values in lysine, proline, leucine and aspartic acid were noticed in mixed pollen. The effect of different feeding on Vg protein in nurse and forager bee samples was higher in the mixed pollen group in the fall period. In nurse bees, the mixed pollen group was followed by Cistus creticus pollen > Papaver somniferum pollen > sugar syrup > commercial bee cake > control group, respectively (p < 0.05). In forager bees, the order was mixed pollen, P. somniferum pollen, C. creticus pollen, commercial bee cake, sugar syrup and control. In the early spring period, the Vg levels were high in the mixed pollen group in the nurse bees and the commercial bee cake group in the forager bees. In the fall period, the HSP 70 value of the forager and nurse bees was the lowest in the C. creticus group (p < 0.05). In early spring, the active period of flora, a statistical difference was found between the treatment groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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12 pages, 1864 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Annual Fluctuations in Winter Colony Losses of Apis mellifera L. Are Predicted by Honey Flow Dynamics of the Preceding Year

by Jes Johannesen, Saskia Wöhl, Stefen Berg and Christoph Otten

Insects 2022, 13(9), 829; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13090829 - 12 Sep 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1977

Abstract

Winter loss rates of honey bee colonies may fluctuate highly between years in temperate climates. The present study combined survey data of autumn and winter loss rates in Germany (2012–2021) with estimates of honey flow—assessed with automated hive scales as the start of honey flow in spring and its magnitude in summer—with the aim of understanding annual fluctuations in loss rates. Autumn colony loss rates were positively and significantly correlated with winter loss rates, whereas winter loss rates were inversely related to loss rates in autumn of the following year. An early start of net honey flow in spring predicted high loss rates in both autumn and winter, whereas high cumulative honey flow led to lower loss rates. The start of net honey flow was related to temperature sums in March. Combined, the results implied that the winter loss rate in one year was influenced by the loss rate of the preceding winter and shaped by honey flow dynamics during the following year. Hence, the rate of colony loss in winter can be viewed as a cumulative death process affected by the preceding one and a half years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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14 pages, 2504 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Varroa Appears to Drive Persistent Increases in New Zealand Colony Losses

by Philip Stahlmann-Brown, Richard J. Hall, Hayley Pragert and Thomas Robertson

Insects 2022, 13(7), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070589 - 28 Jun 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

New Zealand’s temperate climate and bountiful flora are well suited to managed honey bees, and its geographic isolation and strict biosecurity laws have made sure that some pests and diseases affecting bees elsewhere are not present. Nevertheless, given the importance of pollination and high-value export honey to the economy, New Zealand began systematically measuring winter colony losses in 2015. The New Zealand Colony Loss Survey is modelled on the COLOSS survey but has been adapted to the New Zealand apicultural context. Some 49% of New Zealand beekeepers completed the winter 2021 survey. Between 2015 and 2021, overall colony loss rates increased monotonically from 8.37% [95% CI: 7.66%, 9.15%] to 13.59% [95% CI: 13.21%, 13.99%]. Whereas beekeepers most commonly attributed losses to queen problems between 2015 and 2020, attributions to varroa have escalated year-on-year to become the largest attributed cause of colony loss. Losses to varroa are perhaps amplified by the 23.4% of respondents who did not monitor mite loads and the 4.4% of beekeepers who did not treat varroa during the 2020/21 season. Indeed, most beekeepers consider their treatment to be effective and note that treating at the wrong time and reinvasion were major drivers of losses to varroa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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13 pages, 1796 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Supplementary Feeding with Different Pollens in Autumn on Colony Development under Natural Environment and In Vitro Lifespan of Honey Bees

by Erkan Topal, Rodica Mărgăoan, Veysel Bay, Çiğdem Takma, Banu Yücel, Devrim Oskay, Gamze Düz, Sezer Acar and Mustafa Kösoğlu

Insects 2022, 13(7), 588; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects13070588 - 27 Jun 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2935

Abstract

Honey bees need pollen and nectar sources to survive in nature. Particularly, having young bees in colonies is vital before wintering, and proper feeding is necessary to achieve this. In the present study, the effect of feeding with pollen sources of different protein content on colony performance, wintering ability and in-vitro longevity of colonies that weakened after feeding with pine honey in autumn, or that needed to enter the winter period, was investigated. The experiment was carried out in 48 colonies divided into six groups as follows: control, syrup, mixed pollen, Cistus creticus pollen (Pink rock-rose), Papaver somniferum pollen (Opium poppy), and commercial bee cake groups. In particular, the P. somniferum pollen group was different (p < 0.01) from the other experiment groups with the number of bee frames (3.44), the area with brood (1184.14 cm²) and the wintering ability of 92.19%. The effect of nutritional differences on survival was found to be statistically significant in vitro and this supports the colony results in the natural environment (p < 0.001). The P. somniferum group has the longest longevity with 23 days. Pollen preferences of honey bees were P. somniferum, C. creticus, and mixed pollen, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Losses of Honey Bee Colonies across the World)

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