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Silicate Solid Waste Recycling

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2021) | Viewed by 28490

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Yue Xiao

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Guest Editor

School of Materials Science and Engineering, Chang’an University, Xi’an, China
Interests: solid waste recycling in road engineering; road and pavement materials; asphalt pavement maintenance
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Denis Jelagin

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Division of Building Materials, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Interests: mechanics of pavement materials; finite element method; discrete element method; X-ray computed tomography; multi-functional materials
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Prof. Dr. Hongbo Tan

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State Key Laboratory of Silicate Materials for Architectures, Wuhan University of Technology (WUT), Wuhan, China
Interests: supplementary cementitious materials; mineral and chemical admixtures; low-carbon cementitious material

Prof. Dr. Bohumír Strnadel

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Centre for Advanced and Innovative Technologies – VŠB-Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172/15, 708 00 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
Interests: brittle fracture initiation in steels; micromechanic; fatigue of metals; damage mechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Further comprehensive utilization of industrial silicate solid wastes including red mud, coal gangue, fly ash, slag, and tailings are one of the biggest environment and safety concerns worldwide. At present there are many researchers focusing on this topic, and construction and building materials has been considered as the best way to reuse such a big amount of industry silicate solid wastes. For instance, coal gangue has been successfully recycled in aluminum silicate fiber and coal-gangue-fired hollow brick, while flay ash can be used in cementitious materials and road base course materials.

However, the further development of solid waste recycling faces great challenges. There are still many issues which should be further discussed: first, how to develop suitable phase diagrams for silicate solid waste and use them to guide the material design in silicate solid waste recycling. Second, how to reduce hazardous emissions in the recycling process of silicate solid wastes. Third, how to reuse silicate solid waste and apply supplementary cementitious materials in Portland cement systems. Finally, how to increase the recycling ratio of solid wastes and lower the demands of natural sources. All progress in these aspects will promote the development of low-carbon solid waste recycling, showing great economic and environmental benefits.

The aim of this Special Issue of Materials is to attract articles on new materials and innovative technologies on solid waste recycling in construction and building materials. We welcome original research or review articles with a clear application focus in these areas.

Prof. Dr. Yue Xiao
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Denis Jelagin
Prof. Dr. Hongbo Tan
Prof. Ing. Bohumír Strnadel
Guest Editors

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Keywords

material design in silicate solid waste recycling
phase diagrams in silicate solid waste recycling
reduction of hazardous emissions in waste recycling
new kinds of cementitious materials
new technology in alkali-activated slag
recycling of pavement materials
warm and cold mix asphalt materials
green and environmentally friendly pavement materials

Published Papers (14 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 196 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue on Silicate Solid Waste Recycling

by Yue Xiao, Mujaheed Yunusa, Denis Jelagin, Hongbo Tan and Bohumír Strnadel

Materials 2021, 14(14), 3776; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143776 - 06 Jul 2021

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1348

Abstract

The reuse of industrial silicate solid wastes, including fly ash, slag, and waste rubber, is one of the most significant environmental and economic concerns worldwide [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

9 pages, 1891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environment-Friendly Preparation of Reaction-Bonded Silicon Carbide by Addition of Boron in the Silicon Melt

by Maoqiang Rui, Yaxiang Zhang and Jing Ye

Materials 2021, 14(5), 1090; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14051090 - 26 Feb 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1605

Abstract

Reaction-bonded silicon carbide ceramics were sintered by infiltration of Si and B–Si alloy under an argon atmosphere at different temperatures. The element boron was added to the silicon melt to form a B–Si alloy first. The mechanical properties of samples were improved by infiltration of the B–Si melt. The samples infiltrated with the Si-only melt were found to be very sensitive to experimental temperature. The bending strengths of 58.6 and 317.0 MPa were achieved at 1530 and 1570 °C, respectively. The sample made by infiltration of B–Si alloy was successfully sintered at 1530 °C. The relative density of the sample was more than 90%. The infiltration of B–Si alloy reduced the sintering temperature and the bending strength reached 326.9 MPa. The infiltration mechanism of B–Si alloy is discussed herein. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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11 pages, 4887 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Complex Modification on the Impedance of Cement Matrices

by Grigory Yakovlev, Černý Vít, Irina Polyanskikh, Anastasiya Gordina, Igor Pudov, Alexander Gumenyuk and Olga Smirnova

Materials 2021, 14(3), 557; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14030557 - 24 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1939

Abstract

The research results presented in this article were obtained by joint scientific research on creatingcement materials with reduced impedance. It is known that functional additives added to impart electrically conductive properties have a negative impact on physical and mechanical characteristics of the material. This study suggests using the multiwall carbon nanotubes in the amount of 7% from binder mass as a functional additive. The results obtained prove that the addition of this amount of the modifier does not lead to a significant decrease of strength characteristics. Calcium nitrate in the amount of 1–7% was added in order to level the strength loss and to ensure the effective stable electrical conductivity. The multifunctionality of using this salt has been proven, which is manifested in the anti-frost and anticorrosive effects as well in enhancement of electrical conductivity. The optimal composition of the additive with 7% of carbon nanotubes and 3% of calcium nitrate ensures a reduced electrical impedance of cement matrix. The electrical conductivity was 2440 Ohm, while the decrease of strength properties was within 10% in comparison tothe control sample. The nature of changes in the microstructure were studied to determine the influence of complex modifications that showed significant changes in the morphology of the hydration products. The optimum electrical characteristics of cementitious materials are provided due to the uniform distribution of carbon nanotubes and the formation of a network of interconnected micropores filled with the solution of calcium nitrate that provides additional and stable electrical conductivity over time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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12 pages, 2806 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Study on the Utilization of Coal Fly Ash Derived Grog in Clay Ceramics

by Thye Foo Choo, Mohamad Amran Mohd Salleh, Kuan Ying Kok, Khamirul Amin Matori and Suraya Abdul Rashid

Materials 2020, 13(22), 5218; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13225218 - 18 Nov 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1989

Abstract

Grog is an additive material that plays important roles in ceramic making. It improves the fabrication process of green bodies as well as the physical properties of fired bodies. Few low-cost materials and wastes have found their application as grog in recent years, thus encouraging the replacement of commercial grogs with cost-saving materials. Coal fly ash, a combustion waste produced by coal-fired power plant, has the potential to be converted into grog owing to its small particle sizes and high content of silica and alumina. In this study, grog was derived from coal fly ash and mixed with kaolin clay to produce ceramics. Effects of the grog addition on the resultant ceramics were investigated. It was found that, to a certain extent, the grog addition reduced the firing shrinkage and increased the total porosity of the ceramics. The dimensional stability of the ceramics at a firing temperature of 1200 °C was also not noticeably affected by the grog. However, the grog addition in general had negative effects on the biaxial flexural strength and refractoriness of the ceramics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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17 pages, 3220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rheological Properties of SBS/CRP Composite Modified Asphalt under Different Aging Treatments

by Shuhua Wu, Rui He, Huaxin Chen, Wenke Li and Guanghui Li

Materials 2020, 13(21), 4921; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13214921 - 02 Nov 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 1942

Abstract

The objective of this study is to evaluate the rheological properties of SBS/CRP composite modified asphalt under different aging conditions in alpine cold regions. In this study, the styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) block copolymer, crumb rubber powder (CRP), softeners and various additives were used to prepare the SBS/CRP composite modified asphalt. The 4.5% SBS modified asphalt and SK90 virgin asphalt were also selected for comparing. The thin film oven test (TFOT) and pressure aging vessel (PAV) aging test were conducted to simulate the different aging conditions. The frequency sensitivity, high-temperature deformation resistance and low-temperature crack resistance of SBS/CRP composite modified asphalt under different aging conditions were studied by the dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) and bending beam rheometer (BBR) test. The results show that the frequency sensitivity of SBS/CRP composite modified asphalt is the lowest. At low and medium temperatures, it has relatively low strength and good flexibility. The master curve of composite modulus for the unaged and aged SBS/CRP composite modified asphalt is in a cluster state. It has strong anti-aging capability, which is less affected by aging conditions. It also has a strong low-temperature relaxation ability, which can meet the requirements of performance at −24 °C in PG classification. The high-temperature deformation resistance of SBS/CRP composite modified asphalt is not much different from SBS modified asphalt’s. Therefore, it can provide the basic support for the application in alpine cold regions under the conditions of low temperature, strong radiation and heavy load. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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16 pages, 3642 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Utilization of Carbide Slag by Wet Grinding as an Accelerator in Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cement

by Xianyue Gu, Hongbo Tan, Xingyang He, Olga Smirnova, Junjie Zhang and Zhongtao Luo

Materials 2020, 13(20), 4526; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13204526 - 13 Oct 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2080

Abstract

In this study, wet-ground carbide slag (i.e., WGCS) was utilized as an accelerator in calcium sulfoaluminate cement (CSA) for obtaining considerably faster setting processes for some special engineering processes such as plugging projects and rapid repair engineering. The WGCS–CSA system was designed, in which the replacement ratio of CSA by carbide slag was chosen as 4%, 8% and 12%. The setting time and compressive strength were measured, and the mechanism of the system hydration was studied in detail by means of calorimetry, XRD, thermogravimetry (TG) and SEM. The results showed that WGCS shortened the setting time of cement and significantly augmented the early strength. The addition of 8% of WGCS contributed to increasing the 2-h compressive strength from 4.2 MPa to 32.9 MPa. The decrease in the setting time and the increase in the initial strength were mainly attributed to the high initial pH value of the liquid phase and the high content of calcium ions in WGCS. Both these factors contributed to the ettringite formation and, at the same time, to the transformation of the morphology at a later time. Such results testify that WGCS can be used as an accelerator in the CSA system and also that it provides a novel approach to the reutilization of carbide slag. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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16 pages, 3700 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Laboratory Investigation of Aging Resistance for Rubberized Bitumen Modified by Using Microwave Activation Crumb Rubber and Different Modifiers

by Ben Zhang, Huaxin Chen, Honggang Zhang, Yongchang Wu, Dongliang Kuang and Fengjun Guo

Materials 2020, 13(19), 4230; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13194230 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1646

Abstract

Different modification methods, such as adding modifiers and pretreating crumb rubber, have been developed to achieve decent engineering properties and reduce the viscosity of rubberized bitumen. This study evaluated the influence of the modification methods on the aging resistance for rubberized bitumen. Two types of crumb rubber—a 40-mesh crumb rubber and a microwave-pretreated crumb rubber—and two kinds of modifiers—Sasobit and Trans-polyoctenamer—were selected to prepare rubberized bitumen. The samples were subjected to a Thin-Film Oven Test for the simulation of the short-term aging condition, while a Pressure-Aging-Vessel test was used to simulate the long-term aging condition. The indexes of rubberized bitumen, including softening point, elastic recovery ratio, maximum load, ductility, fracture energy, phase angle, and dynamic modulus, were tested before and after aging. The result showed that trans-polyoctenamer displayed the best resistance to short-term aging, while Sasobit significantly improved the fracture energy of rubberized bitumen after short-term aging. Microwave pretreated partially destroyed the internal structure of crumb rubber, leading to a decrease of short-term aging resistance for rubberized bitumen. Compared with short-term aging, the changing trends of various indexes were basically same, except the discrepancy of properties indexes was reduced after long-term aging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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16 pages, 6161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study on Chloride Binding Capacity of Cement-Fly Ash System and Cement-Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag System with Diethanol-Isopropanolamine

by Huaqing Liu, Yan Zhang, Jialong Liu, Zixia Feng and Sen Kong

Materials 2020, 13(18), 4103; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13184103 - 16 Sep 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2126

Abstract

Steel bar corrosion caused by chloride was one of the main forms of concrete deterioration. The promotion of chloride binding capacity of cementitious materials would hinder the chloride transport to the surface of steel bar, thereby alleviating the corrosion and mitigating the deterioration. A comparative study on binding capacity of chloride in cement-fly ash system (C-FA) and cement-ground granulated blast furnace slag system (C-GGBS) with diethanol-isopropanolamine (DEIPA) was investigated in this study. Chloride ions was introduced by adding NaCl in paste, and the chloride binding capacity of the paste samples at 7 d and 60 d was examined. The hydration process was discussed via the testing of hydration heat and compressive strength. The hydrates in hardened paste was characterized by X-ray Diffractometry (XRD), Thermo Gravimetric Analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The effect of DEIPA on dissolution of aluminate phase and compressive strength was discussed as well. These results showed that DEIPA could facilitate the hydration of C-FA and C-GGBS system, and the promotion effect was higher in C-FA than that in C-GGBS. DEIPA also increased the binding capacity of chloride in C-FA and C-GGBS systems. One reason was the increased chemical binding, because DEIPA facilitated the dissolution of aluminate to benefit the formation of Friedel’s salt. Other reasons were the increased physical binding and migration resistance. By contrast, DEIPA presented greater ability to increase chloride binding capacity in C-FA system, because DEIPA showed stronger ability to expedite the dissolution of aluminate of FA than that of GGBS, which benefited the formation of FS, thereby promoting the chemical binding. Such results would give deep insight into using DEIPA as an additive in cement-based materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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13 pages, 2394 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Heating Temperature on the Compactability of Recycled Hot Mix Asphalt

by Xiang Ma, Zhen Leng, Lili Wang and Peisheng Zhou

Materials 2020, 13(16), 3621; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163621 - 16 Aug 2020

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 2267

Abstract

The compactability of an asphalt mixture is related to the heating temperature of the materials, but the heating temperature of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is limited by the production process of hot-in-plant recycled mixtures. To choose a reasonable heating temperature for RAP according to the compactability, the compaction energy ratio (CER) obtained from the Superpave gyratory compactor compaction curve was developed. The CERs of fourteen kinds of asphalt mixtures made with different RAPs were compared, all of which were different in type, content, and heating temperature. The results indicated that CER is an effective energy index to evaluate the workability of a bituminous mixture, and it considers both the accumulated energy after each gyration and the number of gyrations. It was also found that increasing the heating temperature of the RAP cannot always improve the workability of the recycled mixture, because the higher heating temperature caused more hard-aged bitumen to be blended with soft virgin bitumen during the mixing process. At the same RAP heating temperature, increasing the RAP content made it more difficult to compact the mixture, especially for RAPs with styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) modified bitumen, and the recycled mixtures with SBS-modified bitumen were more difficult to compact than those with nonmodified bitumen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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19 pages, 4803 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance Characterization of Hot Mix Asphalt with High RAP Content and Basalt Fiber

by Zhengguang Wu, Chen Zhang, Peng Xiao, Bo Li and Aihong Kang

Materials 2020, 13(14), 3145; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13143145 - 15 Jul 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2258

Abstract

Incorporating reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) into asphalt mixtures achieves astonishingly environmental and economic benefits. However, there is hesitation to use higher RAP content due to the concern regarding the deterioration in pavement performance, especially the cracking resistance. Basalt fiber has been considered an effective additive to reinforce the performance of asphalt mixtures and, subsequently, the reinforcement effect is also expected for high-RAP content mixtures. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of basalt fiber on the pavement performance of asphalt mixtures with 0%, 30%, 40%, and 50% RAP contents against high-temperature performance, moisture susceptibility, low-temperature and intermediate-temperature cracking resistance, based on the wheel-tracking test, the uniaxial penetration test, the freeze-thaw splitting test, the low-temperature bending beam test, the semicircular bend fracture test and the indirect tensile asphalt cracking test, respectively. In addition, a performance-space diagram was developed to determine the mixture performance shift caused by basalt fiber. The results showed that adding basalt fiber compensated for the detrimental effect caused by RAP, leading to significant enhancement in moisture susceptibility and low- and intermediate-temperature cracking resistance of mixtures with high RAP content, along with the enhancement in high-temperature performance, indicating that basalt fiber can contribute to the use of high RAP content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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21 pages, 30815 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Upgrading the Quality of Recycled Aggregates from Construction and Demolition Waste by Using a Novel Brick Separation and Surface Treatment Method

by Kui Hu, Yujing Chen, Caihua Yu, Dong Xu, Shihao Cao and Rui Pang

Materials 2020, 13(13), 2893; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13132893 - 27 Jun 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2162

Abstract

Mixed recycled aggregates (MRA) from construction and demolition waste (CDW) with high-purity and environmental performance are required for highway construction application in base layer and precast concrete curbs. The main problematic constituents that reduce the quality level of the recycled aggregates applications are brick components, flaky particles, and attached mortar, which make up a large proportion of CDW in some countries. This paper studies the potential of brick separation technology based on shape characteristics in order to increase the recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) purity for MRA quality improvement. MRA after purification was also processed with surface treatment experiment by rotating in a cylinder to improve the shape characteristics and to remove the attached mortar. The purity, strength property, densities, water absorption ratio, shape index, and mortar removal ratio of MRA were studied before and after the use of the brick separation and surface treatment proposed in this study. Finally, the recycled aggregates upgradation solution was adopted in a stationary recycling plant designed for a length of 113 km highway construction. The properties of CDW mixed concrete for precast curbs manufacturing were conducted. The results indicate that problematic fractions (brick components, particle shape, and surface weakness) in the MRA were significantly reduced by using brick separation and surface treatment solution. Above all, it is very important that the proposed brick separation method was verified to be practically adopted in CDW recycling plant for highway base layer construction and concrete curbs manufacturing at a low cost. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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20 pages, 4693 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characteristics and Mechanisms of Asphalt–Filler Interactions from a Multi-Scale Perspective

by Wenyi Xu, Xin Qiu, Shanglin Xiao, Haojue Hong, Feng Wang and Jie Yuan

Materials 2020, 13(12), 2744; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13122744 - 17 Jun 2020

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 2439

Abstract

Asphalt mastic plays an important role in asphalt mixtures for pavement engineering. Understanding the asphalt–filler interaction behavior is essential to improve the pavement performance of asphalt mastics. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the asphalt–filler interaction ability based on macro-rheological measurements and to investigate the asphalt–filler interaction mechanism associated with microstructural characteristics of asphalt mastics. First, the asphalt–filler interaction was characterized using macro-rheological features of asphalt mastics based on dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) tests. Second, the physico-chemical interaction between the asphalt and filler was qualitatively evaluated using a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer. Third, the asphalt–filler interaction behavior was investigated in terms of the micro-morphological properties of mineral fillers and asphalt mastics by conducting scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscope (AFM) tests. Finally, the grey relational analysis (GRA) was employed to identify the correlation between the properties of mineral fillers and the macro–micro performances of asphalt mastics. The results show that a higher content of alkaline mineral filler within the critical volume fraction range produced a greater interaction ability between the asphalt and filler. The asphalt–filler interaction is mainly a physical action since no obvious new adsorption peaks appeared in the FTIR spectrum. The micro-morphological characteristics of asphalt mastic mainly depended on the adsorption effect of mineral fillers on polar fractions and the dispersion effect of mineral fillers on wax crystals in the asphalt binder. Based on the results of the GRA, the acidity and content of mineral fillers exhibited a great influence on the micro-morphological and macro-rheological characteristics of asphalt mastics, and the specific surface area of the mineral filler exerted a significant influence on the asphalt–filler interaction ability. Furthermore, the K-B-

δ

index was more appropriate for evaluating the asphalt–filler interaction ability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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13 pages, 8420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Profile Features of Emulsified Asphalt Mixture Containing Steel Slag Based on Laser Scanning

by Feng Wang, Peide Cui, Xiaoshan Zhang, Mujaheed Yunusa and Yue Xiao

Materials 2020, 13(12), 2679; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13122679 - 12 Jun 2020

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1876

Abstract

Micro-surfacing (MS), made of emulsified asphalt, is the most commonly used preventive maintenance technology in asphalt pavement. However, the studies on profile features of MS based on aggregate morphology are few. This study evaluated the profile features of MS and its effect on skid resistance. The aggregate morphologies were first characterized and modified emulsified asphalt was prepared. The three-dimensional profile features of four kinds of MS samples were captured by laser texture scanner. Results illustrate that steel slag aggregate can be used to enhance the skid resistance of pavement surface and bring about larger profile indexes than basalt and limestone due to its angularity index and flatness values. Further aging of steel slag to eliminate free calcium oxide (f-CaO) is recommended before being used in pavement surface layer. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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Review

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16 pages, 2697 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Research Hotspots and Development Trends on Recycled Construction Materials in Pavement Engineering: A Bibliometric Evaluation

by Yue Xiao, Qiankun Dong, Xiwen Chang, Peiqiang Cui and Gang Liu

Materials 2021, 14(9), 2170; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14092170 - 23 Apr 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1779

Abstract

Road recycling technology is gradually becoming a research focus in road construction due to natural resource shortages. It is therefore necessary to carry out deep and extensive analysis of the huge amount of publications in the research area of recycling technology in road construction. Based on three databases (Web of Science, Compendex and Scopus) and VOSviewer visualization software, this study conducts a bibliometric analysis of the literature in the field of recycled construction materials in pavement engineering. The global research publications were reviewed to quantitatively identify the literature characteristics. A number of publications, document types, research areas and keywords were used to achieve the general statistics of this reviewed literature. H-index, publication number and citations per publication were used to evaluate the academic contributions by country, institution and journal. The results show that the most productive country and institution for publications are the USA and Chang’an University from China, respectively, followed by China and Wuhan University of Technology. In recent years, researchers have generally paid attention to two main approaches: the application of rubber modified asphalt and the performance enhancement of recycled pavement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Silicate Solid Waste Recycling)

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