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Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health

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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Natural Products Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2019) | Viewed by 88969

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Fátima Paiva-Martins

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Guest Editor

REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
Interests: antioxidant activity; polyphenols; antioxidants; phenolic compounds; phenolic
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Olive oils, and the effect of their bioactive compounds on human health, have been discussed over the last few years, all over the world; however, this interest is likely to continue for years to come. The health benefits of olive oil have been mainly attributed to the presence of its high content of oleic acid and bioactive phytochemicals, including phenolic compounds, tocopherols, carotenoids and sterols. In addition to olive oil, olive leaves and wastes from the olive oil industry have gained increasing interest as sources of natural bioactive compounds with potential pharmaceutical usage, most of them similar to the ones found in olive oil.

Collective evidence suggests that olive oil components produce beneficial effects in neurovascular and cardiovascular systems through their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiatherogenic, anticancer, antimicrobial, and antiviral properties. However, which components, and how do they exert their activities, are not fully known.

Based on your contribution towards the olive oil scientific community we would like to invite you to submit an article for consideration in the upcoming Special Issue of Molecules on “Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health”, which aims to advance our current knowledge. This Special Issue aims to identify and review the bioactive compounds found in olives and olive oil that have been demonstrated to have a beneficial effect on human health.

Dr. Fátima Paiva-Martins
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Molecules is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

Olea europaea L.
Olives
Olive oil
Phenolic compounds
Antioxidants
Health benefits
Bioactive compounds

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 2194 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lipid Profiling and Stable Isotopic Data Analysis for Differentiation of Extra Virgin Olive Oils Based on Their Origin

by Igor Lukić, Alessio Da Ros, Graziano Guella, Federica Camin, Domenico Masuero, Nadia Mulinacci, Urska Vrhovsek and Fulvio Mattivi

Molecules 2020, 25(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules25010004 - 18 Dec 2019

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4217

Abstract

To differentiate extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) according to the origin of purchase, such as monocultivar Italian EVOO with protected denomination of origin (PDO) and commercially-blended EVOO purchased in supermarkets, a number of samples was subjected to the analysis of various lipid species by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS, LC-ESI-IT-MS) and proton nuclear magnetic resonance analysis (¹H-NMR). Many putative chemical markers were extracted as differentiators by uni- and multivariate statistical analysis. Commercially-blended EVOO contained higher concentrations of the majority of minor lipids, including free fatty acids, their alkyl (methyl and ethyl) esters, monoglycerides, and diglycerides, which may be indicative of a higher degree of triglyceride lipolysis in these than in monocultivar PDO EVOO. Triterpenoids and particular TAG species were also found in higher proportions in the samples from the commercially-blended EVOO class, suggesting a possible influence of factors such as the cultivar and geographical origin. The largest differences between the classes were determined for the concentrations of uvaol and oleanolic acid. The results of the analysis by isotopic ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) were reasonably consistent with the information about the geographical origin declared on the labels of the investigated EVOOs, showing considerable variability, which possibly also contributed to the differences in lipid composition observed between the two investigated classes of EVOO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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17 pages, 1781 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Complementary Untargeted and Targeted Metabolomics for Differentiation of Extra Virgin Olive Oils of Different Origin of Purchase Based on Volatile and Phenolic Composition and Sensory Quality

by Alessio Da Ros, Domenico Masuero, Samantha Riccadonna, Karolina Brkić Bubola, Nadia Mulinacci, Fulvio Mattivi, Igor Lukić and Urska Vrhovsek

Molecules 2019, 24(16), 2896; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24162896 - 09 Aug 2019

Cited by 37 | Viewed by 4111

Abstract

In order to differentiate the extra virgin olive oils (EVOO) of different origin of purchase, such as monovarietal Italian EVOO with protected denomination of origin (PDO) and commercial-blended EVOO purchased in supermarkets, a number of samples was subjected to the analysis of volatile aroma compounds by both targeted gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and untargeted profiling by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC×GC-TOF-MS), analysis of phenols by targeted high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS), and quantitative descriptive sensory analysis. Monovarietal PDO EVOOs were characterized by notably higher amounts of positive LOX-derived C6 and C5 volatile compounds, which corresponded to the higher intensities of all the assessed positive fruity and green odor sensory attributes. Commercial-blended EVOOs had larger quantities of generally undesirable esters, alcohols, acids, and aldehydes, which coincided with the occurrence of sensory defects in many samples. Many minor volatile compounds that were identified by GC×GC-TOF-MS were found to differentiate each of the two investigated groups. The differences between the groups with respect to phenols and taste characteristics were evident, but less pronounced. The results that were obtained in this study have undoubtedly confirmed the existence of the large heterogeneity of oils that are sold declared as EVOO. It was shown that GC-MS, GC×GC-TOF-MS, and HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS analyses have complementary outputs, and that their use in combination has advantages in supporting the results of sensory analysis and objectively differentiating these groups of EVOO. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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20 pages, 984 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cold-Pressing Olive Oil in the Presence of Cryomacerated Leaves of Olea or Citrus: Nutraceutical and Sensorial Features

by Chiara Sanmartin, Isabella Taglieri, Monica Macaluso, Cristina Sgherri, Roberta Ascrizzi, Guido Flamini, Francesca Venturi, Mike Frank Quartacci, François Luro, Franck Curk, Luisa Pistelli and Angela Zinnai

Molecules 2019, 24(14), 2625; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24142625 - 19 Jul 2019

Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4762

Abstract

The nutraceutical properties of extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) can be further improved by the addition of olive leaves during olive pressing. However, while Citrus leaves are rich sources of bioactive substances, no data are available in the literature about the effect of Citrus leaf addition on the nutraceutical and sensorial profiles of olive oil. This study aimed at comparing the chemical and sensorial qualities of olive oils obtained from ripe olives pressed together with either Olea or Citrus spp. (lemon or orange) cryomacerated leaves. General composition parameters as well as major antioxidants and antioxidant activity were measured. A panel test evaluation, as well as headspace volatile characterization (headspace solid phase microextraction, HS-SPME), were also performed. All data were compared with an EVOO extracted from the same olive batch used as control. It was possible to obtain Leaf Olive Oils (LOOs) characterized by a higher (p < 0.05) content of antioxidants, compared to the control sample, and the highest oleuropein concentration was detected in the olive oil extracted in presence of olive leaf (+50% in comparison with the control). All the LOOs showed a higher smell complexity and the scent of ripe fruit was generally mitigated. Lemon and olive LOOs showed the best smell profile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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22 pages, 1279 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lipidomic Profiling of the Olive (Olea europaea L.) Fruit towards Its Valorisation as a Functional Food: In-Depth Identification of Triacylglycerols and Polar Lipids in Portuguese Olives

by Eliana Alves, Tânia Melo, Madalena P. Barros, M. Rosário M. Domingues and Pedro Domingues

Molecules 2019, 24(14), 2555; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24142555 - 13 Jul 2019

Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4815

Abstract

Olives (Olea europaea L.) are classic ingredients in the Mediterranean diet with well-known health benefits, but their lipid composition has not been fully addressed. In this work, we characterised triacylglycerol (TAG) and polar lipid profiles of the olive pulp while using a complementary methodological approach that was based on solid-phase extraction to recover the neutral lipid (NL) and the polar lipid-rich fractions. The TAG profile was analysed in the NL-fraction by C₃₀ reversed-phase liquid chromatography (LC) and the polar lipid profile by normal-phase hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC), with both being coupled to electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and ESI-MS/MS. This approach identified 71 TAG ions that were attributed to more than 350 molecular species, with fatty acyl chain lengths from C11:0 to C26:0, including different polyunsaturated acyl chains. The polar lipids included 107 molecular species that belonged to 11 lipid classes that comprised phospholipids, glyceroglycolipids, glycosphingolipids, and betaine lipids. In addition to polyunsaturated fatty acids, some of the phospholipids, glycolipids, and glycosphingolipids that were identified in the olive pulp have been described as biologically active molecules. Lipidomic phenotyping of the olive pulp has led to the discovery of compounds that will allow for a better assessment of its nutritional value and new applications of bioactive lipid components in this functional food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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16 pages, 1614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toward a Harmonized and Standardized Protocol for the Determination of Total Hydroxytyrosol and Tyrosol Content in Virgin Olive Oil (VOO). The Pros of a Fit for the Purpose Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography (UHPLC) Procedure

by Maria Z. Tsimidou, Nikolaos Nenadis, Aspasia Mastralexi, Maurizio Servili, Bojan Butinar, Stefania Vichi, Ole Winkelmann, Diego Luis García-González and Tullia Gallina Toschi

Molecules 2019, 24(13), 2429; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24132429 - 02 Jul 2019

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4434

Abstract

Τoward a harmonized and standardized procedure for the determination of total hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol content in virgin olive oil (VOO), the pros of a recently published in house validated ultra high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) protocol are discussed comparatively with those of other procedures that determine directly or indirectly the compounds hosted under the health claim on “olive oil polyphenols” (EC regulation 432/2012). Authentic VOOs were analyzed with five different liquid chromatographic separation protocols and ¹H-NMR one in five different laboratories with expertise in VOO phenol analysis within three months. Data comparison indicated differences in absolute values. Method comparison using appropriate tools (Passing-Bablok regression and Bland Altman analyses) for all protocols vs. the UHPLC one indicated slight or statistically significant differences. The results were also discussed in terms of cost effectiveness, detection means, standard requirements and ways to calculate the total hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol content. Findings point out that the in-house validated fit for the purpose UHPLC protocol presents certain pros that should be exploited by the interested parties. These are the simplicity of sample preparation, fast elution time that increase the number of samples analyzed per day and integration of well-resolved peaks with the aid of only two commercially available external standards. Importance of correction factors in the calculations is stressed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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19 pages, 2749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Phenolic Compounds and Their Contribution to Sensory Properties of Olive Oil

by Vasilisa Pedan, Martin Popp, Sascha Rohn, Matthias Nyfeler and Annette Bongartz

Molecules 2019, 24(11), 2041; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24112041 - 28 May 2019

Cited by 81 | Viewed by 6416

Abstract

Olive oil is not only known for its pungent, bitter, and fruity taste, but also for its health potential, which is often hypothesized to depend on its phenolic compounds. One hundred extra virgin olive oil samples (monocultivaric as well as blends of varieties) were assessed with regard to their sensory properties and phenolic compound composition. Nineteen phenolic compounds have been determined and correlated with sensory data. In all olive oil samples, oleocanthal and oleacein were the most abundant phenolic compounds, with average amounts of 77.9 mg/kg and 41.8 mg/kg, respectively. The highest correlation coefficient between a sensory descriptor and the phenolic compounds was found for the bitter taste sensation and the total phenolic content with r = 0.72 and in particular, for 3,4-DHPEA-EA, with r = 0.57. Intensity plots were assessed for the three main sensory descriptors fruitiness, bitterness, pungency, and for the quality factor harmony, which is associated with the degree of ripeness aroma of olive oil. Positive correlations for the aroma descriptors freshly cut grass, leaves, and nuts, and the phenolic compounds were especially observed for oleoside 11-methylester and vanillic acid. The present study provides a comprehensive database of phenolic compounds in olive oils from six different varieties and seven countries. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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12 pages, 1601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Phytochemical and Antioxidant Properties of 15 Italian Olea europaea L. Cultivar Leaves

by Francesca Nicolì, Carmine Negro, Marzia Vergine, Alessio Aprile, Eliana Nutricati, Erika Sabella, Antonio Miceli, Andrea Luvisi and Luigi De Bellis

Molecules 2019, 24(10), 1998; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24101998 - 24 May 2019

Cited by 54 | Viewed by 4399

Abstract

Olive leaf extracts are of special interest due to their proven therapeutic effects. However, they are still considered a by-product of the table olive and the oil industries. In order to learn possible ways of exploiting this waste for health purposes, we investigated the phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activities in the leaves of 15 Italian Olea europaea L. cultivars grown in the same pedoclimatic conditions. The phenolic profiles and amounts of their seven representative compounds were analyzed using HPLC ESI/MS-TOF. The antioxidant activities were determined using three different antioxidant assays (DPPH, ORAC, and superoxide anion scavenging assay). Wide ranges of total phenolic content (11.39–48.62 g GAE kg⁻¹ dry weight) and antioxidant activities (DPPH values: 8.67–29.89 µmol TE mg⁻¹ dry weight, ORAC values: 0.81–4.25 µmol TE mg⁻¹ dry weight, superoxide anion scavenging activity values: 27.66–48.92 µmol TE mg⁻¹ dry weight) were found in the cultivars. In particular, the cultivars Itrana, Apollo, and Maurino, showed a high amount of total phenols and antioxidant activity, and therefore represent a suitable natural source of biological compounds for use in terms of health benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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14 pages, 1166 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Organic and Conventional Growing Systems on the Phenolic Profile of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil

by Anallely López-Yerena, Julián Lozano-Castellón, Alexandra Olmo-Cunillera, Anna Tresserra-Rimbau, Paola Quifer-Rada, Brígida Jiménez, Maria Pérez and Anna Vallverdú-Queralt

Molecules 2019, 24(10), 1986; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24101986 - 23 May 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4836

Abstract

Extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) is largely appreciated for its proven nutritional properties. Additionally, organic foods are perceived as healthier by consumers. In this context, the aim of the present study was to compare the phenolic profiles of EVOO from olives of the Hojiblanca variety, cultivated under organic and conventional systems. The quantification and identification of individual polyphenols was carried out by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry in tandem mode (LC-MS/MS). Significantly higher levels (p < 0.05) of phenolic compounds were found in organic EVOOs. The methodology used was able to detect previously unreported differences in bioactive components between organic and conventional EVOOs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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17 pages, 289 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Extra Virgin Olive Oil to Cook Vegetables Enhances Polyphenol and Carotenoid Extractability: A Study Applying the sofrito Technique

by José Fernando Rinaldi de Alvarenga, Paola Quifer-Rada, Fernanda Francetto Juliano, Sara Hurtado-Barroso, Montserrat Illan, Xavier Torrado-Prat and Rosa Maria Lamuela-Raventós

Molecules 2019, 24(8), 1555; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24081555 - 19 Apr 2019

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 20047

Abstract

Olive oil is the main source of fat in the Mediterranean diet and the most frequently used ingredient in Mediterranean cuisine. Cooking with olive oil has been attracting attention because it can act as a food excipient, thereby increasing the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of ingested bioactive compounds. The aim of this study was to understand the effect of cooking with olive oil on the bioactive components in other ingredients (tomato, onion, and garlic) of sofrito sauce, a representative model of Mediterranean cuisine. After the cooking process, polyphenols from tomato, onion, and garlic were detected in the olive oil, especially naringenin, ferulic acid, and quercetin, as well as a high content of carotenoid Z-isomers, which are more bioavailable than the E-isomers. Therefore, traditional Mediterranean cuisine could play an important role in the health-improving effects of the Mediterranean diet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

15 pages, 1508 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Hakime Hülya Orak, Magdalena Karamać, Ryszard Amarowicz, Adnan Orak and Kamila Penkacik

Molecules 2019, 24(6), 1130; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24061130 - 21 Mar 2019

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 3895

Abstract

The phenolic compound contents and antioxidant activities of the leaf extracts of nine olive genotypes were determined, and the obtained data were analysed using chemometric techniques. In the crude extracts, 12 compounds belonging to the secoiridoids, phenylethanoids, and flavonoids were identified. Oleuropein was the primary component for all genotypes, exhibiting a content of 21.0 to 98.0 mg/g extract. Hydroxytyrosol, verbascoside, luteolin 7-O-glucoside, and luteolin 4′-O-glucoside were also present in noticeable quantities. Genotypes differed to the greatest extent in the content of verbascoside (0.45–21.07 mg/g extract). The content of hydroxytyrosol ranged from 1.33 to 4.03 mg/g extract, and the aforementioned luteolin glucosides were present at 1.58–8.67 mg/g extract. The total phenolic content (TPC), DPPH^• and ABTS^•+ scavenging activities, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and ability to inhibit the oxidation of β-carotene-linoleic acid emulsion also varied significantly among genotypes. A hierarchical cluster analysis enabled the division of genotypes into three clusters with similarity above 60% in each group. GGE biplot analysis showed olive genotypes variability with respect to phenolic compound contents and antioxidant activities. Significant correlations among TPC, FRAP, the values of both radical scavenging assays, and the content of oleuropein were found. The contents of 7-O-glucoside and 4′-O-glucoside correlated with TPC, TEAC, FRAP, and the results of the emulsion oxidation assay. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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16 pages, 761 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

In House Validated UHPLC Protocol for the Determination of the Total Hydroxytyrosol and Tyrosol Content in Virgin Olive Oil Fit for the Purpose of the Health Claim Introduced by the EC Regulation 432/2012 for “Olive Oil Polyphenols”

by Maria Z. Tsimidou, Michaela Sotiroglou, Aspasia Mastralexi, Nikolaos Nenadis, Diego L. García-González and Tullia Gallina Toschi

Molecules 2019, 24(6), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24061044 - 16 Mar 2019

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5182

Abstract

An ongoing challenge in olive oil analytics is the development of a reliable procedure that can draw the consensus of all interested parties regarding the quantification of concentrations above the required minimum value of 5 mg of bioactive “olive oil polyphenols” per 20 g of the oil, to fulfill the health claim introduced by the European Commission (EC) Regulation 432/2012. An in-house validated ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) protocol fit for this purpose is proposed. It relies on quantification of the total hydroxytyrsol (Htyr) and tyrosol (Tyr) content in the virgin olive oil (VOO) polar fraction (PF) before and after acidic hydrolysis of their bound forms. PF extraction and hydrolysis conditions were as previously reported. The chromatographic run lasts ~1/3 of the time needed under high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) conditions, this was also examined. Eluent consumption for the same piece of information was 6-fold less. Apart from being cost effective, a larger number of samples can be analyzed daily with less environmental impact. Two external curves, detection at 280 nm and correction factors for molecular weight difference are proposed. The method, which is fit for purpose, is selective, robust with satisfactory precision (percentage relative standard deviation (%RSD) values < 11%) and recoveries higher than 87.6% for the target analytes (Htyr, Tyr). Standard operational procedures are easy to apply in the olive oil sector. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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14 pages, 1792 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hydroxytyrosol Exerts Anti-Inflammatory and Anti-Oxidant Activities in a Mouse Model of Systemic Inflammation

by Raffaela Fuccelli, Roberto Fabiani and Patrizia Rosignoli

Molecules 2018, 23(12), 3212; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23123212 - 05 Dec 2018

Cited by 64 | Viewed by 4458

Abstract

Hydroxytyrosol (3,4-dihydroxyphenil-ethanol, HT), the major phenol derived from olive oil consumption, has shown different anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities in vitro which may explain the chronic-degenerative diseases preventive properties of olive oil. The aim of this study was to examine the ability of HT reduce inflammatory markers, Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) and Tumour Necrosis Factor alfa (TNF-α and oxidative stress in vivo on a mouse model of systemic inflammation. Balb/c mice were pre-treated with HT (40 and 80 mg/Kg b.w.) and then stimulated by intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Blood was collected to measure COX2 gene expression by qPCR and TNF-α level by ELISA kit in plasma. In addition, the total anti-oxidant power of plasma and the DNA damage were measured by FRAP test and COMET assay, respectively. LPS increased the COX2 expression, the TNF-α production and the DNA damage. HT administration prevented all LPS-induced effects and improved the anti-oxidant power of plasma. HT demonstrated in vivo anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant abilities. The results may explain the health effects of olive oil in Mediterranean diet. HT represents an interesting molecule for the development of new nutraceuticals and functional food useful in chronic diseases prevention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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Review

Jump to: Research

39 pages, 2117 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hydroxytyrosol, Tyrosol and Derivatives and Their Potential Effects on Human Health

by Ana Karković Marković, Jelena Torić, Monika Barbarić and Cvijeta Jakobušić Brala

Molecules 2019, 24(10), 2001; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules24102001 - 24 May 2019

Cited by 311 | Viewed by 16197

Abstract

The Mediterranean diet and olive oil as its quintessential part are almost synonymous with a healthy way of eating and living nowadays. This kind of diet has been highly appreciated and is widely recognized for being associated with many favorable effects, such as reduced incidence of different chronic diseases and prolonged longevity. Although olive oil polyphenols present a minor fraction in the composition of olive oil, they seem to be of great importance when it comes to the health benefits, and interest in their biological and potential therapeutic effects is huge. There is a growing body of in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as intervention-based clinical trials, revealing new aspects of already known and many new, previously unknown activities and health effects of these compounds. This review summarizes recent findings regarding biological activities, metabolism and bioavailability of the major olive oil phenolic compounds—hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, oleuropein, oleocanthal and oleacein—the most important being their antiatherogenic, cardioprotective, anticancer, neuroprotective and endocrine effects. The evidence presented in the review concludes that these phenolic compounds have great pharmacological potential, however, further studies are still required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Olive Bioactives: From Molecules to Human Health)

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